DOE/EH-0445
HUMAN RADIATION EXPERIMENTS:
The Department of Energy Roadmap
to the Story and the Records
United States Department of Energy
Assistant Secretary for Environment, Safety, and Health
February 1995
} y rcpafty <yi the NIH Historical ,
Office &nii the DeWitt Stetten, Jr.
Museum of Medical Research, NIH
This report has been reproduced directly from the best available copy.
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Cover photo: Cobalt-60 teletherapy conducted for cancer treatment at the Oak
Ridge Institute for Nuclear Science (1972).
Printed with soy ink on recycled paper
DOE/EH-0445
HUMAN RADIATION EXPERIMENTS:
The Department of Energy Roadmap
to the Story and the Records
United States Department of Energy
Assistant Secretary for Environment, Safety, and Health
February 1995
The Secretary of Energy
Hazel R. O’Leary
Assistant Secretary for Environment, Safety, and Health
Tara O’Toole, M.D., M.P.H.
The Office of Human Radiation Experiments
Ellyn Weiss, Special Counsel and Director
Archives and Research
William G. LeFurgy, Deputy Director
Elly Melamed, Project Coordinator
Roger Anders, Chief Historian
Alyson Burgess
Tom Fisher
Karoline Gourley
David Harrell
Jean Mansavage
Prita Pillai
Cindy Shindledecker
Michael Yuffee
Outreach and Information Center
Lori Azim, Deputy Director
Sheila Allen
Jack Buchanan
Joanne Carter
Wanda Davis
John Dean
Vernetta Gaines
Tom Hoglund
Lisa Kay Marth
Philip Padgett
Dianne Palmer
Ken Rose
Greg Shaffer
Matt Shull
Bob Zielinski
Office Director’s Staff
Marisa Caputo, Special Assistant
Danille Toles
Technical Support
William Demones
Darrell Fisher
Robert Haddad
Alec Oppenhimer
Paul Stregevsky
Daphne Zweifel
IV
Foreword
O n December 7,1993, U.S. Secretary of Energy Hazel R.
O’Leary announced her Openness Initiative; the scope
of its ramifications has only begun to become fully ap-
parent in the succeeding year. The determination to conduct
the public’s business in an open and fully accountable manner
has required profound change in an agency whose institutional
birth was in the most secret of wartime programs, the Manhat-
tan Project.
Over the past several decades, the American people’s trust in
our institutions of government has greatly eroded. Many com-
plex factors have contributed to this erosion, not least among
them the secrecy associated with our Cold War nuclear compe-
tition with the Soviet Union. Without judging the historical ne-
cessity of secrecy, and in recognition that even today some ac-
tivities require national security classification, it is a fact that the
ability of the Government to perform its post-Cold War mis-
sions is greatly impeded by pervasive public distrust of its mo-
tives and competence. The commitment to openness, of which
this project is a very visible element, is a deliberate effort to
rebuild that basic level of trust between the American people and
for a democracy to function.
Well over 200 people in Washington, D.C. and around the country have devoted all or most of their
time during the past year to the effort to find, declassify if necessary, evaluate, and make publicly ac-
cessible and usable the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) records related to human experimenta-
tion with radiation. This project extends beyond the records of the experiments themselves to in-
clude records in the custody of DOE and important private institutions that illuminate the consider-
ations that drove human-subject research. It has called on the expertise of historians, archivists,
health professionals, declassifiers, records managers, lawyers, and researchers of various kinds. In
addition, the advice and comments of a number of academic and government historians and archivists
has been sought and is gratefully acknowledged. While the work is still ongoing, it has reached a
stage at which substantial progress can be reported, as it is in the following pages.
It would be unrealistic to imagine that we will ever find every document that bears on the story of
human radiation experimentation in which the Manhattan Project, the Atomic Energy Commission,
and DOE have been involved, considering that 3.2 million cubic feet of records still survive in dozens
of locations from coast to coast, many of which are poorly catalogued, if at all. The goal of this publi-
cation is not to have the final word, but to leave behind a roadmap that will enable the public, histori-
ans, and policy makers, as well as those who participated in experiments as subject or researcher, to
come to a better understanding of this aspect of the history of the atomic age.
For me and those with whom I have been privileged to work, this has been an opportunity to con-
tribute to our country’s understanding of its past and transition to its future. My sincere gratitude is
extended to all of those who helped, from Washington to Berkeley and many points between.
Ellyn R. Weiss, Director
U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Human Radiation Experiments
February 1995
Positron emitter detector (circa 1962) used to
detect brain tumors at Brookhaven National
Laboratory.
their government that is necessary
Oak Ridge National Laboratory workers checking for radioactive contaminants (circa 1950).
VI
Acknowledgments
HESE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS must begin with
Secretary Hazel R. O’Leary, who conceived
this project and whose personal commitment to
openness ensured that the necessary resources
and attention were always forthcoming. Dr. Tara
O’Toole, Assistant Secretary for Environment,
Safety and Health, generously shared her exper-
tise and provided a strong and supportive admin-
istrative environment.
We also gratefully acknowledge the help of
Glenn Podonsky, Lesley Gasperow, Sandra Fox,
Virginia Johnson, and the staff of the Office of
Security Evaluations; Martha DeMarre, Fanny
Bryant, and the staff of the Coordination and
Information Center; and Norma Wilson, Becky
Dobbs, and others from Pacific Northwest Labo-
ratory. Loretta Hefner of Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory, along with an able and eager staff,
provided invaluable assistance.
This work could not have been accomplished
without the support and coordination of the
primary DOE field and laboratory contacts: Jack
Bartley, Bruce Church, Max Creamer, Richard
Dickson, Barbara Fitzgerald, Shirley Fry, Ken
Groves, Erskine Hicks, Ed Jascewsky, Ralph
Kopenhaver, Deborah Maresca, Alan McMillan,
Thomas Row, Gene Runkel, Gary Sanders, Rob-
ert Schlenker, Yvonne Sherman, L.P. Singh, Judy
Stroud, James Ware, and Michael Yesley.
The project also recognizes the important con-
tributions of the following people:
• Dave Anglen
• Tom L. Baccus, Trina Baker, Neil Barss, Rob-
ert Baumgardner, Tom Bell, Anna Berge,
Barton Bernstein, Gabrielle Boudreau, Barbara
Brooks, Peter Brush, Joanne Burrows
• Pepin Carolan, Nong Chen, Marjorie Ciarlante,
Carolyn Clark, Margo J. Clark, Lynn V. Cline,
Frank Cooling, Jim Cooper, Jeannie Cuevas
• Cheryl Dawson, Ross Decker, Denise Diggin,
Jerry Dummer
• Connie Eimer, Patricia Barbosa-Ekman
• Dion Farganis, Lenora Flowers, Guy Fringer
• Steve Galson, Vanessa Gamble, Michael
Giberson, Robert Gruber, Paul Guthals
• Bart Hacker, Perry Hall, Hal Halpern, Victoria
Harden, Zena Hardin, Pat Heinig, Roger
Heusser, Richard Hewlett, Karen Holmes,
Mary Hones, Thomas Hudson
• Bruce Jones, Pat Jones, Rick Jones, Geoffrey
Judge
• Bonnie Kapus, Hannah King, Judy Krumm,
Tom Kunkle
• Robert Landazuri, Georgette Lane, Lowell
Langford, Marsha Lawn
• Robert Martensen, Brian Martin, Priscilla
McMillan, Carol McKay, Roger Meade, Bill
Moss
• Jerome Nashorn, Gary Novak
• Rick Oborn, John Ost
• John Parascandola, Gayle Peters, Don Peter-
son
• Charles Reeves, Dan Reicher, Chris Reilly,
David Rothman, William G. Rothstein, Carol
Rueter
• Shannon Savage, Jeanne Schauble, Berta
Schreiber, Pat Schuette, Marion B. Scroger,
GayLa Sessoms, Mike Smith, Lynne Snyder,
Heather Stockwell, John Stoner, Susan
Storch, Cliff Strader
• Dennis Trailor
• George Voelz
• Samuel Walker, Mary Ann Wallace, Denise
Walters, Ashleigh Waring, Spencer Weart,
Suzanne White
• Jeanne Young
• Nancy Zinn, Steve Zobel, Mark Zweifel.
Thanks also are due to the staffs of R.O.W.
Sciences, Inc., and COMPA Industries, Inc. □
Glenn T. Seaborg, discoverer of plutonium and Chairman of the AEC, 1961-1971.
viii
Contents
Foreword v
Acknowledgments vii
List of Photographs xi
Chapter I. Overview of the DOE Project I
Introduction 3
Background 5
DOE Archives and Records 6
DOE Strategy for Finding Experiment Information 8
Information as an Engine for Democratic Government 10
Looking Forward 10
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series Descriptions 13
Introduction 17
DOE Predecessor Agencies and Human Radiation Experimentation:
A Headquarters Overview 19
Argonne National Laboratory 47
Brookhaven National Laboratory 63
Hanford Sites 74
Idaho Sites 95
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory 108
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 126
Los Alamos National Laboratory 136
Oak Ridge Sites 150
University of Chicago 183
University of Rochester 189
National Archives and Records Administration 194
S3
Introduction 202
Radiation, Biomedical Science, and Isotope Distribution 203
Human Plutonium Injection Experiments 210
Environmental Releases of Radiation 214
IT*" Yr"- i
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Experiments Associated
with DOE or Predecessor Agencies 223
Introduction 225
Criteria for Listing Experiments 225
Basic Categories of Human Radiation Experiments 226
The Process of Identifying Experiments 227
Summarizing and Listing Experiments 227
Challenges 227
iibii.imiJJUJ.iE
Plutonium Injection Experiments 229
Argonne National Laboratory 229
Brookhaven National Laboratory 231
Hanford Sites 237
Idaho Sites 238
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory 239
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 249
Los Alamos National Laboratory 251
Oak Ridge Sites 259
University of Chicago — Argonne Cancer Research Hospital 268
University of Rochester 279
Other 281
Appendices
Abbreviations and Acronyms 291
Radiation Terms 295
List of Experiments from American Nuclear Guinea Pigs:
Three Decades of Radiation Experiments on U.S. Citizens (Markey Report) 279
Select Bibliography 299
X
List of Photographs
1 . Wright Langham being placed in the first
whole body radiation counter at Los Alamos 3
2. Medical activities at Brookhaven National Laboratory (circa 1965) 4
3. A horizontal rotational scanner used to detect the quantity
and distribution of radiation in the body 4
4. Los Alamos chemist Wright Langham and a “plastic man”
used to simulate human radiation exposures 6
5. A whole body counter (circa 1964) at the Berkeley Donner Laboratory.
Such counters were used in human radiation tracer studies and for
measuring AEC worker radiation exposure 8
6. Oak Ridge National Laboratory workers turning in their pocket dosimeters
(circa 1 950). Various types of dosimeters were worn by workers to measure
radiation doses and prevent excessive exposure 10
7. A positron emitter detector at Brookhaven National Laboratory (circa 1965) 17
8. Early treatment for Parkinson’s disease at
the Berkeley Donner Laboratory (circa 1965) 18
9. Donner Laboratory carbon- 1 4 metabolic study apparatus 19
10. Oak Ridge National Laboratory workers checking
for radioactive contaminants (circa 1950) 21
I I . Oak Ridge technicians measuring air monitor samples for radiation 23
12. Brookhaven National Laboratory used "phantoms” such as
the mannequin on this wheeled table to approximate human radiation exposures 24
13. A Brookhaven technician demonstrating fast-neutron detection equipment 26
14. Brookhaven Low-Level Whole Body Counting Facility (circa 1968) 27
1 5. A patient prepared for treatment with charged atomic particles at
Lawrence Radiation Laboratory (now Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory) 29
16. Clinical test of an artificial kidney developed by
Argonne National Laboratory (circa 1970) 48
17. A subscale model of the nuclear reactor used for medical research
and treatment at Brookhaven National Laboratory 63
18. A patient receiving treatment at Brookhaven Medical
Department Hospital (circa 1961) 63
19. Study of carbohydrate-lipid metabolism at Brookhaven 64
20. A parkinsonian patient ( left) before and during administration of L-dopa at
Brookhaven. Radioactive materials were useful in the development of L-dopa 65
21 . A facility at Hanford for treating persons injured by embedded radioactive particles
(circa 1967). In this shielded operating cell, a mock patient is flanked by a surgeon
{right) and a radiation monitor {/eft) 74
22. A Richland, WA, child participating in a program to measure radiation typically
present in the body. This 1 960s project took place at Pacific Northwest Laboratory 77
23.
Measuring intentional radiation release at the Idaho experimental dairy farm (1964).
...96
24.
A mobile whole body counter (1966)
25.
Respiration analysis using injected radioactive tracers
at Donner Laboratory (circa 1968)
26.
A patient under a positron camera. The camera was a diagnostic tool
developed at Donner Laboratory, Berkeley, to photograph radioactive
tracer concentrations. Unlike a whole body scanner, this device
photographs a single, specific area of the body
. . 109
27.
A kidney examination using a scintillation camera at Donner Laboratory, Berkeley . . .
. . . 1 10
28.
Early use of a Geiger-Miiller counter to test thyroid function at Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory
29.
A conventional whole body counter (circa 1964)
. . . 127
30.
Wright Langham (/efc) introduces the “plastic man” to Los Alamos Director Norris
Bradbury. The figure was used to simulate human radiation exposures
. . 137
31.
A whole body radiation counter at Los Alamos (circa 1958)
...139 |
32.
A counter being used at Los Alamos to measure plutonium in the lung
... 1 40
33.
An Oak Ridge National Laboratory employee having a blood test
to detect radiation exposure (circa 1950)
.. 151
34.
Aerial view of the Oak Ridge X-10 facility (1945), which served as a pilot
for the Hanford plutonium production reactors. After World War II,
the facility produced isotopes for national distribution
..152
35.
Oak Ridge health physics technicians monitoring a cafeteria for radiation
. . . 153
36.
Cobalt-60 teletherapy conducted for cancer treatment at the Oak Ridge
Institute for Nuclear Science (1972)
. . 154
37.
The automatic contouring system used at Argonne Cancer Research Hospital
to determine how much radiation will penetrate to cancer tumors
..184
38.
An AEC inspector checking radiation equipment for safety at
Oakland Navy Hospital (circa 1973)
. . 189
39.
Joseph Hamilton (/efc) conducting one of the first isotope metabolism studies
during the 1930s. The study took place at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory
(now Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory)
. . 202
40.
Oak Ridge technicians reading dosimeters to detect worker radiation exposures
. . .204
41.
An Oak Ridge isotope worker (right) and a health physics technician (circa 1950) . . . .
. . .205 1
42.
Isotope processing buildings, Oak Ridge
. . .206
43.
Production of isotopes at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, ca. 1946
. . .207
44.
Measuring beta radiation from a sample of phosphorus-32 at Oak Ridge
. . .207
45.
Early method of handling radioactive sources at Los Alamos
. . .208
46.
Experimental cardiac pacemaker powered by plutonium, ca. 1968
...209 1
47.
Telegram from University of Rochester notifying Los Alamos
of three plutonium injections, 1945
..211
48.
xii
Plutonium separation building (“canyon”) at Hanford
. . .217
49. ( top and bottom) A Los Alamos Radioactive Lanthanum (RaLa) test in Bayo Canyon. ... 218
50. Measuring intentional radiation releases at the Idaho experimental dairy farm
(circa 1964) 220
5 1 . Checking radioactivity after a Controlled Environmental
Radioiodine Test (CERT) in 1966 220
52. A nuclear reactor sitting on a test cell pad prior to preliminary tests at the Nevada Test
Site (circa 1968). This Phoebus 2 design was part of the Rover project to develop a
nuclear-propelled rocket capable of interplanetary travel 221
53. Separating radioactive carbon from material bombarded in the
Oak Ridge nuclear reactor 222
54. The first patient to receive boron neutron capture therapy at Brookhaven National
Laboratory (1951). The patient is under the blanket visible in the mirror ( top center). . . 225
55. Diagnostic test of iodine- 1 3 I thyroid uptake at Brookhaven National Laboratory 227
i - v ;
XIV
Chapter I :
Overview of the DOE Project
Introduction 3
Background 5
DOE Archives and Records 6
DOE Strategy for Finding Experiment Information 8
Information as an Engine for Democratic Government 10
Looking Forward 10
i
2
Chaptej L Overview of the DOE Project
Chapter I . Overview of the DOE Project
Introduction
O n April 10, 1945, medical staff of the U.S.
Manhattan Engineer District in Oak Ridge,
TN, injected plutonium into the victim of a car
accident. American scientists had only recently
begun producing plutonium, and thousands of
workers were laboring to produce the quantities
required for the first atomic bombs. While
aware that plutonium was hazardous, project
officials were uncertain how much exposure
would cause harm. Desire for information about
human metabolism and retention of plutonium
led to this first injection in Oak Ridge. Over the
next 2 years, 17 other people also received plu-
tonium injections.
Figure I . Wright Langham being placed in the first whole body
radiation counter at Los Alamos.
The Manhattan Project and its postwar succes-
sor, the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC),
also carried out human experiments with ura-
nium, polonium, americium, and other radioac-
tive substances. Radiation tests continued after
the war; some of these studies took place under
AEC supervision and had direct defense-related
applications. The agency also sponsored substan-
tial programs in the medical applications of radia-
tion and in basic biomedical research. In addi-
tion, independent physicians and researchers at
universities and hospitals conducted many post-
war human radiation studies to develop the
techniques of present-day nuclear medicine.
The role of the U.S. Government in conducting
or sponsoring human radiation experiments has
become the subject of public debate. Questions
have been raised about the purpose, extent, and
health consequences of these studies, and about
how subjects were selected. The extent to which
subjects provided informed consent is also under
scrutiny. To respond to these questions, the
Clinton administration has directed the U.S. De-
partment of Energy (DOE), along with other Fed-
eral agencies, to retrieve and inventory all re-
cords that document human radiation experi-
ments. Many such records are now publicly avail-
able and will permit an open accounting and un-
derstanding of what took place.
The American people want to know if
their Government used appropriate poli-
cies and practices when these radiation
experiments took place.
This report summarizes the Department’s ongo-
ing search for records about human radiation ex-
periments. It is also a roadmap to the large uni-
verse of pertinent DOE information. DOE is
working to instill greater openness — consistent
with national security and other appropriate
considerations — throughout its operations. A key
aspect of this effort is opening DOE’s historical
records to independent research and analysis.
3
Human Ra diatio n Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
Figure 2. Medical activities at Brookhaven National Laboratory
(circa 1965).
Why the concern over events that took place as
long ago as 50 years? Some individuals are con-
cerned that they or family members may have
been involved in experimental activities. Most
broadly, however, the issue is trust. The Ameri-
can people want to know if their Government
used appropriate policies and practices when
these radiation experiments took place. People
also want to know if their Government is now
truly committed to opening its records.
This project is a prototype for the larger
job of identifying, preserving, and making
available the historical record of the
American nuclear age.
Issues associated with DOE records range be-
yond human radiation experiments. DOE is cur-
rently involved in extensive environmental man-
agement and cleanup activities that require his-
torical documentation of site activities. Ongoing
independent health studies require information
about site emissions and worker exposures to
hazardous material. The end of the Cold War
has also spurred interest in nuclear weapons
development and related programs. The records
that document these stories are, like those for
human radiation experimentation, contained
within 3.2 million cubic feet of DOE records.
This project is a prototype for the larger job of
identifying, preserving, and making available the
historical record of the American nuclear age.
The effort to bring these records under
intellectual control now allows unprece-
dented access to an important subset of
DOE records.
Three categories of information are presented
here:
• Narrative summaries of the major DOE
facilities associated with human radiation
experiments — These summaries present
facts, establish context, and discuss the most
useful sources of pertinent information.
• Records series descriptions — These de-
scriptions summarize the content of records
collections that contain important
experiment-related documentation. Record
series for each site follow the corresponding
narrative.
• Descriptions of individual human radiation
experiments — Criteria based on White
House guidance (described below) were
used to decide which events and activities fit
the definition of human radiation experi-
ments. In gathering and presenting these
categories of information, detailed analysis
and judgment have deliberately been
avoided. A Presidential advisory committee
is now evaluating the ethics of human radia-
tion experiments, and DOE is providing in-
formation to support that work.
Figure 3. A horizontal rotational scanner used to detect the quan-
tity and distribution of radiation in the body.
4
Chapter I . Overview of the DOE Project
This project has identified an enormous volume
of historical records. Some records were classi-
fied and are newly available to the public
through declassification. Other records contain
personal privacy information that has been ap-
propriately withheld pursuant to Federal law.
Most of these records, however, were neither
secret nor otherwise restricted. As a practical
matter, access to them was inhibited because
they were disorganized, poorly catalogued, and
scattered across holding areas, offices, and re-
cords centers from coast to coast. The effort to
bring these records under intellectual control —
to describe what\s where — now allows unprec-
edented access to an important subset of DOE
records.
At a December 1 993 press conference, Secre-
tary of Energy Hazel R. O’Leary released docu-
ments describing previously secret U.S. nuclear
tests, facts about bomb-grade plutonium, and
information about fusion energy. The Secretary
also made available some documents related to
human radiation experiments, particularly the
1945-1947 injections of 18 human subjects with
plutonium. She committed DOE to the collec-
tion and review of historical data about the ex-
periments and undertook to release as much
information as legally possible.
Secretary O’Leary committed the Depart-
ment of Energy to the collection and re-
view of historical data about human radi-
ation experiments.
Facts about human radiation experiments were
not unknown before the December press con-
ference. Postwar scientific journals had published
details about many such experiments, including
the plutonium injections. Information about the
plutonium experiments first received widespread
public attention during the mid-1970s. Congress-
man Edward Markey (D-Mass) issued a report in
1 986 entitled American Nuclear Guinea Pigs:
Three Decades of Radiation Experiments on U.S.
Citizens. This report discussed the plutonium
injections and about 30 other experiments.
Moreover, a month before the Secretary’s press
conference, the Albuquerque Tribune had pub-
lished a lengthy series by reporter Eileen
Welsome on the injections, which was ultimately
awarded a Pulitzer Prize.
The Secretary also made available some
documents related to human radiation
experiments , particularly the 1945-1947
injections of eighteen human subjects
with plutonium.
Nonetheless, the Secretary’s public discussion of
the issue generated intense public interest. Me-
dia accounts of other experiments soon fol-
lowed, including use of radioactive materials at a
Massachusetts school for the retarded and at a
Vanderbilt University maternity clinic. These
accounts spurred further public interest and calls
for a full account of human radiation studies.
Shortly after the December press conference,
DOE set up a toll-free hotline — soon expanded
to include other Federal agencies and depart-
ments — to gather inquiries and information from
persons about possible radiation experiments.
Calls to the interagency helpline eventually ex-
ceeded 20,000. Hundreds of letters also arrived
daily from the public.Apart from DOE, agencies
potentially involved in human radiation studies
included the Department of Defense, the De-
partment of Veterans Affairs, the Department of
Health and Human Services, the National Aero-
nautics and Space Administration, and the Cen-
tral Intelligence Agency. President Clinton estab-
lished a Cabinet-level Human Radiation Inter-
agency Working Group in January 1994 to coor-
dinate the Federal government’s response. The
administration also issued a directive for
Government-wide records inventory and re-
trieval. This activity were to focus on:
Experiments on individuals involving in-
tentional exposure to ionizing radiation.
This category does not include common
and routine clinical practices, such as
established diagnosis and treatment
methods, involving incidental exposures
to ionizing radiation;
5
h/uman Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadm ap to t he Sto ry an d the Records
and
Experiments involving intentional envi-
ronmental releases of radiation that (I)
were designed to test human health ef-
fects of ionizing radiation; or (2) were
designed to test the extent of human
exposure to ionizing radiation.
Specified releases of radiation to the environ-
ment were also included in the directive, such as
a series of tests at Los Alamos, tests at the
Dugway Proving Ground, and a 1949 release at
Hanford called the “Green Run.” (All of these
releases are discussed in Chapter 2.)
In addition, the President issued an Executive
Order establishing an independent Advisory
Committee on Human Radiation Experiments,
which was to provide expert advice and recom-
mendations regarding the studies in question.
The order directed the committee to consider
three specific issues:
1 . Had there been a clear medical or scientific
purpose for the experiments?
2. Was appropriate medical follow-up con-
ducted?
3. Did the design and administration of the ex-
periments meet the ethical and scientific
standards, including standards of informed
consent, which prevailed at the time of the
experiments and that exist today?
Federal agencies were directed to provide the
committee with the historical records and other
information needed to complete its work.
In January 1994, DOE set up an interim head-
quarters group under the Assistant Secretary for
Environment, Safety, and Health to coordinate
the search for historical records. Shortly there-
after, the agency established an Office of Human
Radiation Experiments (OHRE), which assumed
responsibility for the records search, liaison with
the advisory committee, and written and tele-
phone inquiries from the public.
DOE Archives and Records
From the 1940s to the present, the U.S. nuclear
program has depended on a national network of
laboratories and other specialized sites. Today,
over 40 such sites exist in more than a dozen
states. Private companies operating under special
Federal contracts have managed most of these
facilities. While DOE directs and oversees the
activities of these contractors, sites have histori-
cally enjoyed substantial autonomy. This arrange-
ment began with the Manhattan Project’s deci-
sion to rely on the technical skills and infrastruc-
ture already in place at the Nation’s universities
and in private industry. The result was a highly
decentralized organization. From a
recordkeeping standpoint, this resulted in lim-
ited central files — that is, discrete, comprehen-
sive collections of documents for specific mis-
sions and functions. Instead, a proliferation of
nonstandardized filing practices took root
throughout the organization.
The President issued an Executive Order
establishing an independent Advisory
Committee on Human Radiation Experi-
ments, which was to provide expert advice
and recommendations regarding the stud-
ies in question.
! Figure 4. Los Alamos chemist Wright Langham and a “plastic man”
used to simulate human radiation exposures.
Other influences worked against effective re-
cords management. The U.S. nuclear program
underwent rapid and continual growth in the
decades after 1945; in the push to expand pro-
grams, records had a low priority. Modern tech-
nological programs consist of many projects that
6
Chapter 1 . Overview of the DOE Project
change over time, and documentation of such
volatile work is often difficult to manage and
preserve. Records and decisions about them are
typically decentralized, resulting in idiosyncratic
approaches to documentation. Persuasive evi-
dence of this phenomena is presented in A Study
of Documents at Department of Energy National
Laboratories: Final Report, issued in 1 982 by the
American Institute of Physics.
Despite these factors, a large volume of DOE-
related information dating from the early 1 940s
to the present has survived. Agency headquar-
ters, field, and contractor organizations have
custody of an estimated 3.2 million cubic feet of
paper files. These organizations also have an un-
determined, although presumably large, volume
of information in pictorial, cartographic, and
electronic formats. DOE has also transferred
some records with historical value to the Na-
tional Archives and Records Administration
(NARA) for permanent preservation.
Use of DOE records is, however, difficult. One
reason is that the agency created and kept its
files for purposes other than research. From the
researcher’s perspective, document content,
arrangement, and location are consequently less
than ideal. The primary barrier to using DOE
records, however, is that they are not under
intellectual control. In other words, systematic
knowledge about where specific records are or
what records are available for a particular orga-
nization or topic is spotty at best. The 1 988
NARA report entitled Evaluation of the Records
Management Program of the Department of En-
ergy documented long-term problems in several
key areas. Singled out for particular notice was a
shortcoming in complying with Federal records
standards for inventorying (describing what ex-
ists) and scheduling (identifying what to save and
what to destroy). This problem lies at the heart
of the lack of intellectual control.
Additional issues pertinent to DOE records are
security classification and other access restric-
tions. From its wartime origins until only re-
cently, the U.S. nuclear program was cloaked in
secrecy. According to dictates of the 1946 and
1954 Atomic Energy Acts, many documents
were “born classified,” and required specially
qualified personnel to review each page of each
document before declassification. Congress orig-
inally established these stringent restrictions to
prevent adversaries from obtaining nuclear
weapons information. The result, however, was
the systematic classification of millions of docu-
ments. While classification guidelines have been
modified over time, declassification still requires
a laborious page-by-page review. (Most records
relating to human radiation experiments are
now unclassified; relevant classified records have
received top priority for review and release.)
Agency headquarters, field, and contrac-
tor organizations have custody of an esti-
mated 3.2 million cubic feet of paper files.
DOE has been working to make more informa-
tion available since the late 1980s. Environment,
safety, and health concerns, particularly ques-
tions about potential health effects associated
with past site operations, drove much of the
initial effort. Various epidemiological and other
health studies of site workers and of nearby
communities are now underway through the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) and state health departments. This re-
search requires historical information, some of
which is classified. DOE and the related govern-
ment health organizations, however, are com-
mitted to making the documentary basis of site
health studies open to the public.
This approach raised two important questions:
What kinds of specific information — including
classified information — existed for each site un-
der study? And, what was the best mechanism to
make this information available within restric-
tions imposed by law?
The answers to these questions were based
upon fundamental information and records man-
agement concepts. DOE, as owner of the infor-
mation, would work with CDC and other stake-
holders to conduct an inventory of appropriate
records at relevant sites. The Department would
incorporate the inventory results into written
guides for distribution to the public. Among
other functions, CDC and DOE would use the
guides to target specific collections with access
restrictions and set priorities for declassification
review.
7
Huma n Radiation Experiments: The DOE Ro a dmap to the Sto ry and the Records
Many documents were u born classified, ”
and required specially qualified personnel
to review each page of each document
before declassification.
The search for human experimentation records
uses the same fundamental approach. Compati-
bility of the approaches makes an eventual
merger of DOE environment, safety, and health
information into a single Internet-based data col-
lection possible. This would significantly enhance
public access and ensure the long-term manage-
ment and preservation of historical records.
DOE Strategy for Finding Experiment
Information
DOE had two goals in planning to find and
make available human radiation experiment
records:
1 . Address the short-term information needs
of the Advisory Committee on Human Radi-
ation Experiments and other stakeholders.
2. Meet long-term objectives to manage and
preserve DOE records with value to histori-
ans and other researchers.
To meet these goals, DOE has made a commit-
ment to locate records relating to human sub-
ject research and bring them under intellectual
control. This requires an inventory to establish
what kinds of records are available, where they
are, and what information they contain. This
process identifies the universe of records and
helps identify files relevant to a particular re-
search topic. Intellectual control also helps es-
tablish priorities for declassification review and
physical transfer to archival repositories for per-
manent preservation.
The Office of Environment, Safety, and Health
distributed records search guidance throughout
the Department in early 1994. This guidance,
along with subsequent updates issued by the Of-
fice of Human Radiation Experiments, outlined
the basic tasks required of DOE offices and con-
tractor organizations.
The guidance mandated a logical, phased ap-
proach using established archival and records
management procedures. It called for nine steps:
Figure 5. A whole body counter (circa 1 964) at the Berkeley
Donner Laboratory. Such counters were used in human radiation
tracer studies and for measuring AEC worker radiation exposure.
O Identify human radiation experiments con-
ducted, sponsored, or facilitated by DOE or
predecessor agencies;
© FindzW bodies of site records that describe
experiments and the organizational context
in which they occurred;
© Identify records as individual series (such as
reports, contracts, or correspondence files);
0 Gather basic information about the records to
complete an inventory form for each series;
© Copy selected significant documents;
© Ensure that site information is accurate by
conducting verification and other quality as-
surance measures;
0 Co/?£/f/cf declassification review for series
containing classified material;
© Compile the inventory information into a
publicly available database; and
© Use the database to find specific records
quickly, and to effectively manage and pre-
serve records throughout DOE.
8
Chapter I . Overview of the DOE Project
Each DOE Operations Office and site associated
with past human radiation experiments estab-
lished an interdisciplinary team to perform this
work under the direction of the headquarters
Office of Human Radiation Experiments.
This guidance for this project used estab-
lished archival and records management
procedures.
DOE has used a three-phased oversight ap-
proach for this process:
• First, the Office of Human Radiation Experi-
ments issued detailed written guidance and
held meetings to discuss the guidance. Each
site has also submitted periodic progress
reports.
• Second, each important site has been visited
at least twice by interdisciplinary headquar-
ters teams to provide focused guidance in
identifying and describing both records and
individual experiments.
• Third, quality assurance is implemented
through cross-checking information from
different sources and audit visits to verify
inventory coverage and accuracy.
Given the volume of extant records, priorities
were established for sites as well as records.
Initial research revealed that most activities as-
sociated with human experiments took place at
the sites described in Chapter 2. Most effort has
focused on these places. Since the greatest inter-
est is in experiments prior to 1974 (the year in
which broadly applicable guidelines for the pro-
tection of human research subjects were
adopted) attention has been concentrated on
inactive records. These contain most informa-
tion that is more than 1 0 years old.
The DOE strategy for finding and making avail-
able complete information on human radiation
experiments centers on the records series con-
cept. A series consists of the following:
File units or documents arranged accord-
ing to a filing system or kept together
because they relate to a particular subject
or function, result from the same activity,
document a specific kind of transaction,
take a particular physical form, or have
some other relationship arising out of
their creation, receipt, or use.
A group of records filed together, or that relate
to a common topic, typically form a series. Or-
ganizations often create a series for a specific
purpose or to serve a single function, such as
recording official actions, compiling personnel
data, or tracking funds.
Records series arranged the way they were orig-
inally kept provide the most valuable historical
information. Original arrangement maintains file
integrity as evidence of the nature of an entity
and its activities. This helps researchers answer
broad questions about the organization, its func-
tions, and its members. Documents existing
apart from their series have less value, as the
contextual information provided by the rest of
the file is absent. Consequently, the procedure
established by the DOE guidance stressed the
need to find and describe complete records
series — to work from the bottom up, as it were.
On the other hand, there is also demand for
specific information about human radiation ex-
periments. To get this information, the series
descriptions are used to target more detailed
searches for individual documents. Such docu-
ments are copied, marked with details about
where they came from (provenanced), and sent
to the Coordination and Information Center
(CIC) in Las Vegas. The CIC scans and indexes
each document into computer files. About
1 3.000 documents, comprising more than
150.000 pages, were placed in this human exper-
imentation collection during 1994. As the inven-
tory and related search activities continue, addi-
tional documents will be added. These docu-
ments are being made available for public access
on the Internet computer network. An Internet
Home Page on the World Wide Web
(http://www.eh.doe.gov/ohre/home.htm) also
provides additional information, including a large
bibliography of published reports and pertinent
congressional testimony. This information will be
fully searchable by personal names, places,
terms, and many other keywords.
9
Huma n Ra diation Exp eriments: T he D OE Roadmap to the Story and the R ecords
Information as an Engine for
Democratic Government
While priority has been given to establishing
control over records relating to human radiation
experiments, it is recognized that DOE records
serve a broader public interest. The conceptual
framework for this proposition, contained in the
1985 Report of the Committee on the Records
of Government, outlines the need for organized
and accessible Government records to:
• document the history and intent of public
policy;
• ensure accountability for programs and ac-
tivities;
• preserve basic data needed to review past
scientific research and conduct new re-
search;
• ensure effective administration of public pro-
grams; and
• form the basis of a national history and an
understanding of society and culture.
These documents are being made avail-
able for public access on the Internet
computer network.
The approach represented by this project is also
linked to broader ideas about improving govern-
ment:
Transparency — Simplifying appropriate ac-
cess to government information lets citizens
see what agencies have done (or have not
done). This is essential to building trust and
confidence in tasks assigned to government.
Public Involvement — People need to have
adequate information to participate in re-
viewing issues, presenting options, and mak-
ing decisions.
Shared History — Vibrant, meaningful history
depends on access to a wide knowledge
base. Current debates on why the atomic
bomb was used on Japan, for example, draw
extensively on diverse archival sources. As
we move deeper into historical analysis of
the Cold War, even broader access to gov-
ernment records will be needed.
Lessons Learned — In assessing govern-
ment’s role, people need information by
which to judge the success of government
activities. The same information is needed in
coping with unintended consequences of
past actions.
Competition — Knowledge of specific pro-
grams and their relative success stimulates
competition for current government ser-
vices. Such information allows private en-
terprises — or other government entities —
to propose alternate approaches.
Figure 6. Oak Ridge National Laboratory workers turning in their
pocket dosimeters (circa 1950). Various types of dosimeters were
worn by workers to measure radiation doses and prevent excessive
exposure.
Looking Forward
Over the last year, DOE has tried to uncover
as much information as possible about human
radiation experiments. Scores of citizen inquiries
and accounts have been received and entered
into a computer database. DOE and its contrac-
tor organizations have reviewed their records
holdings for pertinent information. Thousands of
documents have been made public and an un-
precedented number of records have been de-
classified and released. Individual experiments
have been researched, described, and publicized.
DOE has also assisted the Advisory Committee
on Human Radiation Experiments in finding
specific information. These efforts will lead to
enhanced public understanding about the
10
Chapter I . Overview of the DOE Project
experiments and about the Cold War era over-
all.
The report is intended for a wide audi-
ence , including policy makers, historians,
scientists, journalists, public interest
groups, those who may have been in-
volved in human radiation research, and
the public.
This report summarizes DOE’s work for the year
and aims to expand public understanding still far-
ther. It is a guide — a roadmap — to an enormously
complex history documented in millions of docu-
ments, some of which are, or were until recently,
restricted under national security classification.
The report is intended for a wide audience, in-
cluding policy makers, historians, scientists, jour
nalists, public interest groups, those who may
have been involved in human radiation research,
and the public.
As noted above, openness is an ongoing process.
More documents will almost certainly be found,
as will new series, although we believe that
through an iterative and logical process, most of
the important records relevant to human radia-
tion experiments have been identified. Yet, while
the documents collected at the CIC and placed
on the Internet are easily accessible, original doc-
uments in records series may prove more difficult
to obtain because of declassification issues, Pri-
vacy Act restrictions, and some site-specific con-
straints.
Despite such limitations, however, this process
offers a first glimpse into Cold War historical re-
cords, and a first step in preserving these records
and opening them to the public. □
12
Chapter 2:
Narratives and Records Series
Descriptions
Institutional Areas
Introduction 17
The Narratives 17
The Records Series Descriptions 17
DOE Predecessor Agencies and Human Radiation Experimentation:
A Headquarters Overview 19
Introduction 19
Origins of the Manhattan Project 19
Creating a New Industry 20
Wartime Medical Problems 20
The Plutonium Injection Experiments 20
Distribution of Radioisotopes 21
Creation of the Atomic Energy Commission 21
Medical Problems Facing the AEC 22
The AEC and Human Radiation Experimentation, 1 940s— 1 950s 22
The AEC and Human Subject Consent, 1 940s- 1 950s 23
The Impact of the Cold War 24
The Korean War 25
The Hydrogen Bomb 25
The Test Ban Debate 25
The Impact of the Fallout Controversy 25
The AEC in Transition 26
Atoms for Peace 26
Building a Commercial Nuclear Power Industry 27
The AEC and Human Radiation Experiments, 1 960-1 970s 27
Radioisotopes and Nuclear Medicine 28
Biomedical Research and Institutional Decision Making 28
The AEC and Subject Consent, 1 960s- 1970s 28
Controversies Over Radioactive Effluents, Thermal Pollution, and Reactor Safety 29
Impact of the Energy Crisis 29
The Energy Research and Development Administration 30
The U.S. Department of Energy 30
Headquarters Records Collections 31
13
Argonne National Laboratory 47
The Site Today 47
Site History 47
Site Human Radiation Experiments 48
Site Records Collections 49
Brookhaven National Laboratory 63
The Site Today 63
Site History 63
Site Human Radiation Experiments 64
Site Records Collections 66
Hanford Sites 74
The Sites Today 74
Site History 74
Site Human Radiation Experiments 76
Site Records Collections 77
Idaho Sites 95
The Sites Today 95
Site History 95
Site Human Radiation Experiments 97
Site Records Collections 98
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory 108
The Site Today 108
Site History 108
Site Human Radiation Experiments 109
Site Records Collections Ill
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 126
The Site Today 126
Site History 126
Site Human Radiation Experiments 127
Site Records Collections 128
Los Alamos National Laboratory 136
The Site Today 136
Site History 136
Site Human Radiation Experiments 137
Site Records Collections 140
14
Oak Ridge Sites
150
The Sites Today 150
Site History 150
Site Human Radiation Experiments 154
Site Records Collections 155
University of Chicago 183
The Site Today 183
Site History 183
Site Human Radiation Experiments 184
Site Records Collections 184
University of Rochester 189
The Site Today 189
Site History 189
Site Human Radiation Experiments 190
Site Records Collections 191
National Archives and Records Administration 194
Introduction 202
Radiation, Biomedical Science, and Isotope Distribution 203
Introduction 203
Background 203
World War II and the Manhattan Project 204
Postwar Research 205
Isotope Distribution Program 207
Other Aspects of Biomedical Research 209
Human Plutonium Injection Experiments 210
The Manhattan Project and Plutonium Health Hazards 210
The Experiments, Part I 210
The Experiments, Part 2 212
The Plutonium Experiments and the Public 212
Environmental Releases of Radiation 214
Introduction 214
Radiation Releases for Military Purposes 214
Radiation Releases for Nonmilitary Purposes 219
15
16
i
Chapter 2. Narratives and R ecords Serie s — I nstitutiona l Are as: Introduction
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series Descriptions
Institutional Areas
introduction
T his chapter contains two kinds of infor-
mation. The first consists of brief narrative
histories that discuss the involvement of the De-
partment of Energy (DOE) and its predecessor
agencies with human radiation experiments.
These histories cover agency headquarters ele-
ments and the various field sites that had signifi-
cant involvement in experiment activities.
The second category of information is series
descriptions for groups of original records that
are pertinent to either individual experiments or
to the organizational context in which they took
place. Since many of these records still reside at
DOE sites, series descriptions are appended to
the narrative for each facility. Where records
are not in the custody of DOE, they are listed
under their custodial organization (such as the
National Archives).
The Narratives
Narratives are included for nine different DOE
organizations and facilities, past and present.
Two universities that operated under contract
with the Government are also discussed. These
organizations had the most significant involve-
ment in human radiation experiments sponsored
or conducted by DOE and its predecessors.
Summaries of the sites’ current activities, their
history, and their role in experimentation are
provided. This summary approach was adopted
for both conceptual and practical reasons. Con-
ceptually, DOE’s task was to find pertinent re-
cords and make them available. Judgements
drawn from this material are made by independ-
ent bodies, including the Advisory Committee
on Human Radiation Experiments.
From a practical perspective, summary narra-
tives also present useful contextual information
for the records series descriptions. Archivists
typically use “scope and background statements”
in published finding aids to help researchers
better understand an organization’s records. It
is, for example, important to know when an or-
ganization began, what its purpose was, what its
principal parts were, and how it changed over
the years. Such information helps researchers
plan a records search.
Figure 7. A positron emitter detector at Brookhaven National
Laboratory (circa 1965).
The Records Series Descriptions
Records series are groups of related files, such
as a hospital’s medical records or a laboratory’s
research notebooks. A series can be small (one
binder or notebook), large (100+ boxes of files),
or any size in between. The determining factor is
how the records were created and maintained.
Records series descriptions are a technique for
effectively cataloging large collections. Such a
catalog provides intellectual control: it tells peo-
ple where specific records are and what is in
them. For many years, the National Archives and
Records Administration (NARA) and other
17
Hu man Radiation Ex p eriments: The DOE Roa dmap to the Story and the Reco rds
archival institutions have used the concept of
records series to manage historical records.
DOE chose to develop records series descrip-
tions for human radiation experiment-related
records because it was the best method for
quickly gaining control over the Department’s
vast holdings. Dozens of DOE records collec-
tions spread around the Nation may have useful
information. Often, a document by document
search was required. A requisite for the assign-
ment of national priorities for the search was to
gain an overview of the records universe and
identify the most important collections. DOE
also recognized that the credibility of the search
is enhanced by leaving behind a record of what
was done and a means for others to take it fur-
ther. The series will permit independent record
searches, provide long-term public access, and
aid in transferring DOE records to archival cus-
tody.
Figure 8. Early treatment for Parkinson's disease at the Berkeley
Donner Laboratory (circa 1965).
In compiling the series descriptions, the inten-
tion was to cover as many collections relating to
human radiation experiments as possible. Some
collections may have eluded the search. If new
materials are found, they will be added to the
listings below and their availability publicized.
It is recognized that there are inconsistencies in
the records series. These differences reflect vary-
ing histories, cultures, and recordkeeping prac-
tices throughout the agency. The goal is to pres-
ent uniform and accurate information about each
series. We encourage individuals to give us more
and better information: this listing will be updated
through a sustained dialog with its users.
The listed records series have been culled from
the larger DOE records universe. For example,
records relating to occupational radiation expo-
sures, plant production emissions, nuclear weap-
ons testing, waste management, environmental
monitoring, general administration, and many
other topics have not routinely been included.
While occasionally the project scope expanded
to include documents requested by the Advisory
Committee, the search focused on activities re-
lating to human radiation experiments and inten-
tional radiation releases as defined in the January
1994 White House guidance.
Dozens of DOE records collections spread
around the Nation may have useful infor-
mation.
The difference between document collections
and records series is important. Part of the DOE
project has involved copying significant individual
documents and providing them to interested
parties, including the Advisory Committee. A
collection containing electronic document im-
ages and indexes has been created, consisting of
about 1 50,000 pages. This collection is available
on the Internet through the DOE/OHRE Home
Page. (World Wide Web address:
http://www.eh.doe.gov/ohre/home.htm) Users
should understand that these individual docu-
ments represent only a fraction of the records
covered by the series descriptions. Researchers
may wish to use both the special document col-
lection and the original files.
Finally, it should be understood that the records
represented by the series descriptions are not
instantly accessible. Most are still kept in agency
warehouses and basements, and some contain
classified documents that will require declassifi-
cation before they are publicly available. Other
restrictions, such as personal privacy, may also
apply to some files. Those wishing to use re-
cords described in this guide — except those in
the legal custody of the National Archives and
Records Administration — should contact the
DOE Office of Human Radiation Experiments at
(202) 254-5020. We will work with the custodial
organizations to facilitate access. Note that re-
cords at NARA are typically open for use; some
files are classified, but DOE is systematically re-
viewing those files for declassification.
18
Chapter 2, Nar r atives and Records Series — Insti t utional A reas: DOE Predecessor Agencies
DOE Predecessor Agencies and Human Radiation Experiments:
A Headquarters Overview
Introduction
DOE INHERITED a legacy of human radiation ex-
periments from predecessor agencies, including
the Manhattan Engineer District (MED) and the
Atomic Energy Commission (AEC). The Manhat-
tan Project engaged in human radiation experi-
mentation as part of its mission to build the
atomic bomb. This mission included studying the
health effects and hazards posed by nuclear en-
ergy. The AEC, postwar successor to the MED,
had jurisdiction over both peaceful and military
nuclear development and investigated related
biomedical issues.
Figure 9. Donner Laboratory carbon- 1 4 metabolic study apparatus.
Shortly after the war’s end, cancer research as-
sumed a prominent place on the national agenda.
At the direction of Congress, the AEC funded
considerable research into cancer diagnosis and
therapy. After the AEC was abolished in 1975,
the Energy Research and Development Adminis-
tration (ERDA) briefly had responsibility for all
AEC functions except those related to nuclear
regulation, which devolved upon the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (NRC). DOE came into
existence in 1977 and in turn assumed responsi-
bility for nuclear biomedical research and weap-
ons production.
The Manhattan Project engaged in hu-
man radiation experimentation as part of
its mission to build the atomic bomb.
Attempts to understand radiation and its impact
on the human body began shortly after the dis-
covery of x rays in 1895. The Federal govern-
ment, however, did not sponsor human radiation
experimentation until the Manhattan Project was
on the verge of building the atomic bomb. This
project required development of a new industry
that created hazardous radioactive materials,
some of which did not exist until the war effort.
MED biomedical researchers began research and
experimentation with animals to establish expo-
sure standards for the workers. Yet animal ex-
perimentation proved incapable of providing all
needed data. The Manhattan Project leadership
therefore authorized studies with radioactive
materials in human subjects.
Origins of the Manhattan Project
In December 1938, while conducting experi-
ments in their Berlin laboratory, German scien-
tists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman discovered
that uranium could be broken into two lighter
elements while releasing energy. Scientists soon
realized that this “fission” process could release
enormous amounts of energy, providing the ba-
sis for a weapon of unprecedented explosive
power. American scientists quickly grasped this
possibility when news of the discovery of fission
crossed the Atlantic.
A month after Nazi Germany invaded Poland,
Albert Einstein wrote President Roosevelt urging
the President to launch a program to build atomic
weapons. Spurred by the possibility that the Ger-
mans could already be working on an atomic
bomb, Roosevelt organized an advisory commit-
tee that began considering how to separate the
fissionable isotope of uranium from uranium ore.
Soon after Glenn Seaborg of the University of
California and his colleagues discovered pluto-
nium in 1941, the committee expanded its scope
to explore the feasibility of large-scale production
of this second fissionable metal.
19
Human Ra diation Exper i men ts: The DOE Roadmap to t he Stor y an d the Rec ords
The uranium and plutonium projects began
slowly due to the great technical and logistical
problems involved. In June 1942, Vannevar Bush
and James B. Conant, who led the bomb project,
recommended that the country commit all possi-
ble resources to production of an atomic bomb.
Bush and Conant further suggested that the
Army run the project. Roosevelt agreed, and in
August 1942 the Army Corps of Engineers es-
tablished the Manhattan Project to build an
atomic bomb as quickly as possible.
Creating a New Industry
The task called for creation of an enterprise
greater in scope and complexity than any single
contemporary private industry on “a pressing,
almost desperate time schedule.” Moreover, the
project would incorporate new industrial pro-
cesses and would have to deal with radioactivity
on a previously unknown scale. Nevertheless,
given the exigencies of wartime, the leader of
the Manhattan Engineer District, General Leslie
Groves, decided to bypass pilot plant stage and
go directly to full production.
The task called for the creation of an en-
terprise greater in scope and complexity
than any single contemporary private in-
dustry on “a pressing , almost desperate
time schedule. ”
Unsure which (if any) would succeed, the Manhat-
tan Project simultaneously pursued three meth-
ods to produce the fissionable isotope of ura-
nium: electromagnetic separation, gaseous diffu-
sion, and thermal diffusion. Plants for all three
were built at Oak Ridge, a thinly settled area in
eastern Tennessee selected by the Government
as an atomic reservation. Hanford, a large arid
tract in eastern Washington bounded by the Co-
lumbia River, was selected for the plutonium pro-
ject. Nuclear reactors, a plutonium separation
plant, and a variety of associated facilities were
constructed there. These sites were chosen for
their access to water and power and for their
remoteness, which enhanced security. Virtual ar-
mies of workers moved into Oak Ridge and
Hanford to construct and operate plants. To de-
sign a weapon, the Manhattan Project built a sepa-
rate research laboratory at Los Alamos, NM.
Wartime Medical Problems
Creating the atomic bomb involved many unique
and little-understood health hazards. The most
novel was radiation. Scientists knew that radia-
tion was hazardous; for example, the health ef-
fects suffered by radium dial painters earlier in
the century had been well documented. What
was not known was how much radiation would
harm workers.
But the plutonium work , which produced
highly radioactive and toxic materials,
presented the greatest hazards.
Other hazards included chemical agents, high-
voltage electricity, and the potential for explo-
sions in experimental work that involved the use
of gas and liquids under great pressure. To pro-
tect workers from these hazards, the Manhattan
Project organized a Medical Section.
The Medical Section’s most immediate problem
was to identify and control the hazards associ-
ated with the various production processes.
Data were collected on the potentially damaging
effects of radioactive and toxic materials. The
medical personnel provided advice on the design
of plants and production processes and prepared
to treat cases of radiation and chemical poison-
ing. Because the Manhattan Project oversaw en-
tire communities at Oak Ridge, Hanford and Los
Alamos, the Medical Section also ran clinical
medicine programs to treat a variety of routine
health problems. But the plutonium work, which
produced highly radioactive and toxic materials,
presented the greatest hazards.
The Plutonium Injection Experiments
Most project medical research involved experi-
mentation with animals through programs estab-
lished at the University of Rochester and else-
where. Manhattan Project researchers, however,
also used humans as research subjects; the most
widely known example of this is the plutonium
injection experiments.
As early as January 1944, Glenn Seaborg warned
that “the physiological hazards” of plutonium
might “be very great” and suggested that” a
program to trace the course of plutonium in the
20
Chapter 2. Narratives and Re c ords Serie s — I nstitutional Are a s: DOE Predecessor Ag enci es
body should begin as soon as possible." Animal
studies had shown plutonium to be toxic and
that different species excreted it from the body
at different rates. Project physicians therefore
wanted human data to obtain reliable informa-
tion for the establishment of exposure levels for
workers. In presenting these considerations to
Los Alamos laboratory director J. Robert
Oppenheimer on March 26, 1945, Louis
Hempelmann asked that the MED “help make
arrangements for a human tracer experiment.”
Such arrangements were made, and a series of
human experiments began in 1945. (See the sec-
tion, “Human Plutonium Injection Experiments,”
under Topical Areas later in this chapter.)
Other human radiation experimentation was
conducted under the Manhattan Project. In the
mid- 1 940s, University of Rochester researchers
gave five patients radioactive polonium to obtain
excretion data. Rochester researchers also in-
jected six patients with uranium salts to investi-
gate the metabolism of uranium by the body and
to observe its effect on kidney function. To de-
tect radiation skin effects, MED contractor re-
searchers in Tennessee also exposed 10 subjects
to beta radiation. (Individual experiments are
detailed in Chapter 3.)
Distribution of Radioisotopes
The Manhattan Project also assisted postwar
radiation experiments by non-Government phy-
sicians and researchers. In 1946, Oak Ridge be-
gan shipping radioisotopes to private physicians
and other researchers. This distribution made
radioisotopes available in far greater quantities
and at much lower cost than previously. The
isotope distribution program was the earliest,
and for many years the most successful, aspect
of the postwar promotion of “the peaceful
atom.” Researchers used isotopes to study the
body’s metabolic processes and to conduct ex-
perimental treatments for diseases, principally
cancer. Some of this work involved experimen-
tation with human subjects. The same distribu-
tion program provided isotopes to agency and
contractor researchers.
Figure 1 0. Oak Ridge National Laboratory workers checking for
radioactive contaminants (circa 1950).
Creation of the Atomic Energy
Commission
Because the atomic bomb was a wartime military
project, the Manhattan Project had built its facili-
ties behind a curtain of secrecy. It was only with
the bombing of Japan that the American public
learned about the project. After the war, Presi-
dent Truman submitted legislation to Congress
to set up a permanent atomic energy program
under military control. After vigorous debate,
however, Congress decided to charge a civilian
agency with atomic energy and weapons devel-
opment. The Atomic Energy Act of 1946 created
the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) to over-
see both peaceful and military development of
the atom. The law also created the Joint Com-
mittee on Atomic Energy to provide congressio-
nal oversight. Reflecting increasing tensions with
the Soviet Union, the Atomic Energy Act or-
dered the AEC to develop atomic energy “sub-
ject at all times to the paramount objective of
ensuring the common defense and security.” In
its early years, the AEC’s overriding task was the
development of a nuclear weapons arsenal.
21
Human Radiati o n Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
In January 1947, the AEC inherited the programs
of the Manhattan Project. Coming to the agency
were 254 officers; 1,688 enlisted men; 3,950
Government workers; 37,800 contractor em-
ployees; and plants and laboratories worth over
$1 billion. The major facilities included the Los
Alamos laboratory, the Oak Ridge enriched-ura-
nium production plants, and the Hanford pluto-
nium production complex. The AEC also as-
sumed responsibility for uranium mining and re-
fining activities. In addition, nonmilitary atomic
research laboratories were under development
at Argonne, near Chicago; Brookhaven on Long
Island; and Oak Ridge.
Some information , such as medical re-
search and treatment with radioisotopes ,
was openly available. Despite these excep-
tions, most atomic energy activities re-
mained behind a congressionally man-
dated wall of secrecy.
The Atomic Energy Act of 1 946 gave the agency
responsibility for atomic energy activities from
weapons production to scientific and medical
research. The act also placed security restric-
tions on most information pertinent to atomic-
energy development. Legally mandated classifica-
tion restrictions applied to biomedical informa-
tion associated with uranium or plutonium pro-
duction, weapons production, or weapons de-
sign. Some information, such as medical research
and treatment with radioisotopes, was openly
available. Despite these exceptions, most atomic
energy activities remained behind a congressio-
nally mandated wall of secrecy.
The Manhattan Project had used a small head-
quarters staff to oversee the operation of atomic
energy facilities throughout the country. The
AEC continued this practice, leaving substantial
responsibility with agency and contractor field
facilities. In some areas, such as weapons re-
search and development, the AEC commission-
ers maintained central management control. In
other areas, such as biomedical research, the
AEC exercised less management oversight.
Medical Problems Facing the AEC
During the war, the Manhattan Project medical
program gained only preliminary information
about the hazards of radioactive substances.
There was a desire to find out much more about
how uranium, plutonium, and other fission prod-
ucts acted in the human body: What amounts of
radioactive dusts and gases were harmful to
man? Exactly how toxic were uranium, pluto-
nium, and their compounds? What was the most
hazardous means by which radioactive sub-
stances were introduced into the body — by in-
gestion, by inhalation, or by skin absorption?
Physicians had no means available to stop or de-
lay radiation injuries, nor did they possess thera-
peutic measures to treat injury from radioactive
substances. To address these issues, an organiza-
tional unit to do the work was required.
The AEC and Human Radiation
Experimentation, 1 940s- 1 950s
The Atomic Energy Act mandated four AEC
program divisions; military applications, produc-
tion, research, and engineering. This arrange-
ment left the agency temporarily without an or-
ganization to oversee biomedical research, but
the AEC extended ongoing research on an in-
terim basis. An Advisory Committee on Biology
and Medicine was established in 1947, and a Di-
vision of Biology and Medicine in 1948. The AEC
charged the new division with overseeing bio-
medical research programs, including human ex-
perimentation. Until the closed communities of
Los Alamos, Oak Ridge, and Hanford were
opened, the division also supervised clinical med-
icine programs for the treatment of resident
workers and their families. By fiscal year 1949,
the division was managing an operating budget of
$14.6 million.
Although the AEC biomedical division was
charged with protecting the public from the haz-
ards of atomic energy, its initial focus continued
to be upon atomic workers. Thus, one area of
human subject research in which the AEC built
upon precedents was investigation of the bio-
medical hazards of uranium, plutonium, and fis-
sion products. Biomedical research projects de-
voted to investigating these hazards were autho-
rized at the Argonne, Brookhaven, and Los
Alamos Laboratories, and at the University of
Rochester, the University of California (Berkeley
and Los Angeles), Columbia University, and Case
Western Reserve University. Most of these re-
search projects involved experimentation with
animals.
22
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: DOE Predecessor Agencies
Another area in which the AEC built upon Man-
hattan Project foundations was isotope distribu-
tion, headquartered in Oak Ridge. The AEC
stimulated private research with radioisotopes
by providing funding to private physicians and
researchers. The isotope distribution program
was the AEC’s first significant peaceful applica-
tion of nuclear science, and the agency vigor-
ously promoted it. By the end of 1 954, Oak
Ridge had made 64,202 shipments of radioiso-
topes, most to non-Government institutions.
Some of this research involved human subjects.
Popular and scientific interest in the po-
tential uses for radiation in cancer treat-
ment was growing.
In other areas, the AEC broke new ground. Per-
haps, the most visible of these was the use of
radiation in cancer therapy. Popular and scien-
tific interest in the potential uses for radiation in
cancer treatment was growing as the AEC came
into being. In 1948, Congress gave the AEC
$5 million for the express purpose of developing
a cancer research program. With the funds, the
AEC built cancer research hospitals at the Uni-
versity of Chicago, Brookhaven Laboratory, and
the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies.
Cancer therapy was not the only new area of
AEC sponsored or supported human radiation
studies in the late 1940s and 1950s. Calibration
of improved radiation measuring equipment in-
volved volunteers ingesting small amounts of
radioactive material. The AEC also sponsored
human x-ray tests and studies of skin absorption
of radioactive substances, and also began study-
ing radium dial painters and other groups who
ingested radium before World War II.
The AEC and Human Subject Consent,
1 940s- 1 950s
To establish guidance for private research using
radioisotopes on people, the AEC looked to its
Subcommittee on Human Applications. The sub-
committee, part of the larger Committee on Iso-
tope Distribution, drew up a list of radioisotopes
deemed safe for use in humans. The subcommit-
tee also compiled lists of medical schools, hospi-
tals, clinics, and other institutions qualified to con-
duct human radioisotope research. After the sub-
committee reviewed an institution’s qualifications
and granted approval for use of an isotope in hu-
man research, the subcommittee expected each
institution to form a local use committee to moni-
tor individual research projects. This procedure
limited AEC oversight of the clinical procedures
and ethical practices of individual private physi-
cians who used radioisotopes for human subject
research. There was no requirement imposed by
the AEC that private researchers obtain consent
from subjects.
Figure I I . Oak Ridge technicians measuring air monitor samples for
radiation.
Ethical issues were, however, considered in the
context of research performed directly by AEC
employees or in AEC-owned, contractor-oper-
ated facilities. In an April 1 947 letter to Stafford
Warren, chairman of the Interim Medical Advi-
sory Committee, AEC General Manager Carroll
Wilson stated that radiation should not be admin-
istered to medical patients unless there was “ex-
pectation that it may have therapeutic effect.” Any
human experimentation would have to be suscep-
tible of proof from official records that the patient
was “in an understanding state of mind, was
clearly informed of the nature of the treatment
and its possible effects, and expressed his willing-
ness to receive the treatment.”
While written consent from the patient was not
required, doctors were instructed to attest that
the subject had willingly consented. Wilson’s
directive applied to AEC officials and to employ-
ees of its contractor-operated facilities.
23
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the R ec ords
The record does not show that the AEC distrib-
uted or enforced Wilson’s policy. Indeed, the
directive was quickly superseded. During March
1951, Shields Warren, the first director of the
AEC Division of Biology and Medicine, listed
“guiding principles” for human experimentation
for a Los Alamos Laboratory official. Warren
drew upon another Wilson letter, a report from
the AEC’s Medical Board of Review, minutes of
the September 1 948 meeting of the Advisory
Committee on Biology and Medicine, and his
own experiences. Warren did not mention or
refer to Wilson’s April 1947 directive. Warren’s
principles for human subject research included
five requirements:
1 . There must be hope of therapeutic benefit;
2. There must be a provision requiring written
informed consent;
3. The subject would have the right to revoke
consent at any time during an experiment;
4. The research must require only limited use
of classification or secrecy; and
5. Any experimental work involving humans,
including self-experimentation, would have
to be supervised by a physician.
Figure 1 2. Brookhaven National Laboratory used "phantoms" such
as the mannequin on this wheeled table to approximate human ra-
diation exposures.
Charles Dunham, who replaced Warren as Divi-
sion of Biology and Medicine head, modified this
policy. Thomas Shipman, the Los Alamos Health
Division leader, wrote Dunham in 1956, noting
widespread ignorance of Warren’s human ex-
perimentation policy. Shipman, who was propos-
ing research on normal volunteers, confessed
that he had heard about the policy but had never
seen it in writing. In his response to Shipman’s
request for guidance, Dunham did not require
that experiments carry some prospect of thera-
peutic benefit for the subject, but did mandate
that all subjects provide informed consent. Dun-
ham also added two provisions:
1 . Radioactive substances must be used in
amounts judged small enough to avoid harm-
ing subjects; and
2. Approval for human experimentation must
be obtained by a senior medical officer.
Like Warren before him, Dunham did not refer
to Wilson’s April 1947 directive.
These letters suggest that the AEC lacked a
firmly established policy regarding human radia-
tion experiments during the 1940s and 1950s
and used different policies at different times. On
their face, these policies appear to be strict re-
garding both expected therapeutic benefit and
written consent. What is not clear, except by
negative inference, is whether any effort was
made to widely distribute and enforce the poli-
cies. No documents have been found indicating
that the AEC did either.
There was no requirement imposed by the
AEC that private researchers obtain con-
sent from subjects.
The Impact of the Cold War
The five AEC commissioners devoted most of
their attention to problems other than human
radiation experiments. Throughout the agency’s
first years, the commissioners attended mostly
to military applications, particularly weapons
development. Increasing Cold War tensions
spurred the nuclear arms race, and by 1949 the
agency was on the front line of the Cold War.
The international event having the greatest im-
pact on AEC activities was Soviet detonation of
a nuclear device in August 1949. This occurred
before it was expected and caused a secret Gov-
ernment debate over whether to develop a hy-
drogen, or “super,” bomb. Truman concluded
the debate during January 1950, when he or-
dered the AEC to build the super bomb, whose
24
Chapt er 2. Narrat ives a nd Reco rd s Series — Institutional Areas: DOE Predecessor Agencies
explosive power promised a “quantum jump”
over atomic bombs. To produce the tritium re-
quired for the hydrogen bomb program, the
AEC built a new production reactor facility near
Aiken, SC, known as the Savannah River plant. In
response to debates over the adequacy of the
scientific resources devoted to hydrogen weap-
ons development, the AEC also built a second
weapons research laboratory at Livermore, CA,
which, like Los Alamos, was administered by the
University of California.
The Cold War spurred other AEC activities, in-
cluding those related to radiological warfare. Un-
like atomic bombs, which achieve their destruc-
tive power from explosive effect, radiological
warfare would cause damage by the direct dis-
persal of radioactive material on a targeted area.
By 1951, the agency had concluded that the limi-
tations of such weapons outweighed their useful-
ness; this decision was based partially on field
tests. Cold War competition with the Soviet Un-
ion also contributed to the agency’s decision to
conduct the Green Run test at Hanford in 1949.
The Green Run, occurring soon after the first
Soviet atomic detonation, was an intentional re-
lease of radioactive material to test methods for
monitoring the Soviet nuclear program.
The Korean War
International tensions increased when the Korean
War broke out in June 1950. This conflict
spurred the first deployment of nuclear weapons
overseas, vast expansion of AEC production facili-
ties, and establishment of a continental nuclear
weapons testing facility at the Nevada Test Site.
By the mid- 1 950s, the AEC operated 1 3 nuclear
production reactors and 1 2 gaseous diffusion
plants for producing fissionable uranium. Both the
Hanford and Oak Ridge plants were enlarged and
new production complexes were constructed at
Paducah, KY, and Portsmouth, OH.
The Hydrogen Bomb
The Korean war ended in July 1953, but the
AEC’s intensive programs to refine nuclear
weapons continued. Atmospheric nuclear tests
were conducted in Nevada during 1951, 1952,
1953, 1955, 1957, and 1 958; and at the Pacific
proving grounds during 1951, 1952, 1954, 1956,
and 1958. The most important tests were the
Castle series of 1954, which took place in the
Pacific. Soon after the series, the AEC possessed
a hydrogen weapon and a new plan to produce
mass quantities of a few weapons types. Bravo,
the first Castle shot, also ultimately affected
agency biomedical programs.
The Cold War spurred other AEC activi-
ties , including those related to radiologi-
cal warfare.
Los Alamos scientists fired the Bravo shot during
March 1954. The blast size and amount of radio-
active fallout were far greater than planned for;
Bravo fallout contaminated 7,000 square miles,
some of it with very high radiation. Fallout de-
scended upon the military and scientific task
force conducting the test series, Marshallese
islanders, and the crew of a Japanese fishing ves-
sel, the Lucky Dragon.
The Test Ban Debate
These fallout incidents, combined with the large
number of atmospheric weapons tests con-
ducted by both the United States and the Soviet
Union, sparked public debate in the United
States over a proposed test ban. A closely re-
lated debate also followed over the health haz-
ards posed to the public by atmospheric nuclear
testing. AEC assertions that fallout posed little
threat to Americans were challenged, and public
controversy raged until President Kennedy
signed a limited test-ban agreement with the So-
viet Union in August 1963. The treaty prohibited
testing in the atmosphere, underwater, and in
outer space.
The Impact of the Fallout Controversy
The fallout debate had caught the AEC unpre-
pared and the Division of Biology and Medicine
in a difficult position. Biomedical research into
the hazards of fallout would take years to bear
fruit, yet there was an urgent demand for infor-
mation. To provide answers, the division gath-
ered data from all relevant ongoing research
projects, including one called Project Sunshine.
This project had begun as an evaluation of the
hazards associated with nuclear war and grew
into a worldwide investigation of radioactive fall-
out levels in the environment and in human be-
ings. Work in this area included collecting
25
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
human tissues and samples of plants and animals
from around the world.
Figure I 3. A Brookhaven technician demonstrating fast-neutron
detection equipment.
The fallout controversy compelled the AEC to
focus more attention on questions related to
public protection. It also gave greater public visi-
bility to AEC biomedical research. The Joint
Committee on Atomic Energy pushed the
agency to place greater resources into investi-
gating the health effects of fallout. As a result, in
1958, the AEC nearly doubled its prior level of
spending on biomedical programs over a 5-year
period. The director of the Division of Biology
and Medicine, Charles Dunham, stated that this
effort would require “studies on human sub-
jects,” because data from animal experiments
could not be applied directly to human experi-
ence. Dunham stated that human experiments
were safe because of technical advances that
allowed the use of radioactivity in very small
amounts. These experiments required special
equipment found in hospitals or large medical
centers. Dunham urged the agency to expand its
contractual support for human experiments at
such institutions and increase funding for work
in AEC-owned clinical facilities.
The director of the Division of Biology and Med-
icine stated that this effort would require “stud-
ies on human subjects,” because data from ani-
mal experiments could not be applied directly to
human experience.
During the 1950s, AEC contractor researchers
participated in work in which subjects were in-
jected with small amounts of radioactive stron-
tium, calcium, or other substances to help deter-
mine the efficiency of chelating agents in remov-
ing radiation from the body. The fallout contro-
versy imparted greater urgency to other AEC-
sponsored research efforts to learn about hu-
man retention and excretion of radioactive ma-
terials. In the 1 960s, the agency conducted tests
in which human subjects were exposed to envi-
ronmental releases of radioiodine to provide
data on its absorption by the human body.
The AEC in Transition
By the time the United States signed the Limited
Test Ban Treaty in 1963, the AEC’s production
and research efforts had created a nuclear weap-
ons stockpile that met the military’s needs. Ac-
cordingly, President Johnson in 1964 instructed
the AEC to reduce production activities. This
resulted in the gradual shutdown of eight Hanford
production reactors, two Savannah River produc-
tion reactors, and two Oak Ridge gaseous diffu-
sion plants. The remaining gaseous diffusion plants
were run at a reduced rate. Weapons research
did not cease, but both the Los Alamos and the
Livermore Laboratories diversified some of their
effort into other activities. Nuclear weapon test-
ing, although now performed underground, con-
tinued at a steady pace.
The AEC reached a crossroads in 1963. Up to
that time, the problems of the military atom had
commanded the most time, attention, and en-
ergy from agency leaders. Over the next 1 0
years, the problems of the peaceful atom drew
increasing negative attention to the AEC.
Atoms for Peace
Always anxious to promote the peaceful atom,
the AEC was unable to do so effectively until
after Congress amended the Atomic Energy Act
26
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: DOE Predecessor A gencies
in 1954. The 1954 Act encouraged private par-
ticipation in atomic energy development, giving
the AEC authority to remove entire topical ar-
eas of nuclear science and technology from se-
crecy restrictions. This law permitted the agency
to foster a commercial nuclear power industry
and to participate in international peaceful
atomic energy activities. Both meshed with Pres-
ident Eisenhower’s desire to reap practical bene-
fits from America’s lead in nuclear technology.
Eisenhower proposed atomic energy develop-
ment under United Nations auspices in his her-
alded “Atoms for Peace” speech. As a result, the
AEC actively participated in the creation of the
International Atomic Energy Agency, helped
build research reactors abroad and, over a 1 0-
year period, helped to organize three interna-
tional peaceful atomic energy conferences in
Geneva, Switzerland.
The 1954 Act gave the Atomic Energy
Commission authority to remove entire
topical areas of nuclear science and tech-
nology from secrecy restrictions.
At home, the AEC also promoted potential
peaceful atomic energy applications. Among
them were medical uses of radioactive tracers,
fusion research, nuclear-powered rockets, nu-
clear batteries, and nuclear canal excavation.
Many of these ambitious ideas never came to
fruition. The largest single effort, however, was
the push to develop a commercial nuclear
power infrastructure.
Building a Commercial Nuclear Power
Industry
In 1955, the AEC launched the Power Demon-
stration Reactor Program, designed to transform
nuclear reactors into commercial electric power
generators. Offering private industry financial
and other assistance to design and build power
reactors, the AEC attracted cooperation in
building first-generation experimental power
reactors, all of which were more expensive than
comparable fossil-fuel-fired electric generating
plants. In the expectation that power reactors
would soon become economically competitive
and that the utility industry would invest heavily
in the new technology, the agency geared up its
staff to license private utilities to construct and
operate nuclear power reactors, a mission man-
dated by the 1 954 Atomic Energy Act.
By 1965, however, the program was languishing.
Only 1 2 power reactors were then in operation
in the country, and of those, industry had built
only three with wholly private funds. All others
had required substantial governmental financial
assistance to attract industry participation. The
goal of making reactors economically competi-
tive with fossil-fuel-fired power plants had not
yet been realized, 1 0 years after initiation of the
program. In 1966-1967, however, industry sud-
denly ordered 50 nuclear power plants, and
commercial nuclear power continued to grow
robustly for another decade.
The AEC and Human Radiation
Experiments, I960- 1 970s
As the AEC devoted more time to the peaceful
atom, its biomedical research program contin-
ued along lines set earlier. This included substan-
tial research into fallout and the occupational
hazards of atomic energy. During the 1960s, the
Division of Biology and Medicine gradually de-
voted greater resources to the hazards of the
peaceful atom. Some of this research involved
human radiation experiments.
Figure 14. Brookhaven Low-Level Whole Body Counting Facility
(circa 1968).
In the 1960s and 1970s, researchers in AEC-
owned and private facilities expanded into new
areas. The AEC funded experimentation in which
prisoners in Oregon and Washington were
27
Human Radiation Experiments : The D OE Roa dmap to the St or y and the Records
administered radiation from x rays to obtain data
on radiation effects upon testicular cells. Contrac-
tor researchers used particle accelerator beams
and total body neutron activation analysis in other
human radiation experiments.
Radioisotopes and Nuclear Medicine
The direct applications of nuclear science and
technology to medicine grew rapidly after World
War II. By the early 1960s, the Government had
made one-half million shipments of radioisotopes
to physicians and other users. Nuclear medicine
had become an accepted field of specialty and
most human radiation experimentation was, in
fact, being conducted by private physicians and
private hospitals. The agency placed radioisotope
licensing activities under its regulatory staff. All
other radioisotope programs were the responsi-
bility of officials charged with overseeing promo-
tional activities.
The Atomic Energy Commission funded
experimentation in which prisoners in
Oregon and Washington were adminis-
tered radiation from x rays to obtain data
on radiation effects upon testicular cells.
Biomedical Research and Institutional
Decision Making
By the 1960s, the Division of Biology and Medi-
cine had systematized a decision-making process
for biomedical research projects and proposals,
including those which involved human subject
research. The Division of Biology and Medicine
approved most biomedical research through an
annual budget cycle. Proposals for new research
originated with doctors and scientists in AEC
contractor laboratories or in AEC-funded uni-
versity research projects. The proposals were
drafted on a Proposal and Authorization for Re-
search or Development form, also known as
Form 189, which contained project descriptions,
justifications, and cost estimates. After labora-
tory directors and university project leaders ap-
proved them, completed Form 189s were for-
warded to the Division of Biology and Medicine,
where they were reviewed by the branch chief
who oversaw research in that discipline. Costs
were then rolled into a consolidated division
budget request. At that level, individual projects
were no longer identified.
By 1970, the Atomic Energy Commission
encouraged its sites to form institutional
review boards to review human subject
research projects.
When the division director and his senior man-
agers approved the consolidated budget and the
research that it would fund, the budget went to
the AEC general manager and commissioners for
approval. Approval at this stage was given for
spending levels, not for individual research pro-
jects, or even for groups of them. By approving
the Division of Biology and Medicine budget, and
incorporating it into the agency budget submit-
ted to Congress, the AEC general manager and
commissioners authorized the biomedical re-
search that it would fund.
The agency used the Advisory Committee on
Biology and Medicine to provide advice on gen-
eral biomedical research and health policies and
programs. Except for a short period in the early
years of the agency, the committee did not re-
view individual research projects. Although the
committee in theory presented its recommenda-
tions to the AEC commissioners, in practice the
committee functioned as an advisor to the divi-
sion director.
Occasionally, the agency did consider biomedical
research programs or projects outside the bud-
get review process. This was generally limited to
programs or projects considered controversial
or unusually expensive. For these projects, the
division director would incorporate project pro-
posals and recommendations into an agency de-
cision paper and seek approval of the paper
through the agency’s formal policy decision pro-
cess.
The AEC and Subject Consent,
1 960s- 1 970s
The U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH)
adopted forma! guidelines for the protection of
human subjects in 1966. The Division of Biology
and Medicine informed AEC facilities of this and
some sites chose to apply elements of the guide-
lines, although there was not yet a requirement
28
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Instit u tional Areas: DOE Predecessor Agencies
to do so. By 1970, the AEC encouraged its sites
to form institutional review boards to review
human subject research projects. The NIH
guidelines required informed consent from sub-
jects before experimentation and required that
subjects be told that they could withdraw con-
sent to experimentation at any time. Many local
institutional review boards formed at AEC labo-
ratories did require written consent from sub-
jects.
Controversies Over Radioactive
Effluents, Thermal Pollution, and
Reactor Safety
The quieting of the fallout issue caused by the
cessation of atmospheric nuclear testing in 1963
did not end the debate over the health effects of
radiation. By the late 1960s, issues were raised
about the potential environmental impacts of
radioactive emissions from nuclear power plants.
The agency maintained, however, that its author-
ity did not extend to environmental impacts. The
AEC was eventually directed by court order to
consider the full range of environmental impacts
of nuclear power plants during the licensing pro-
cess. Compelled by this decision to strengthen
its environmental assessment capability, the
agency renamed the Division of Biology and
Medicine the Division of Biomedical and Envi-
ronmental Research and channeled more funds
and scientific effort into environmental research.
Another public controversy erupted during the
early 1 970s, again over nuclear power plants.
Critics charged that plant safety devices would
not prevent a catastrophic meltdown of a nu-
clear reactor core, which could spread radioac-
tive contamination over hundreds of square
miles. The AEC was unable to provide conclu-
sive proof of the adequacy of safety systems. A
formal hearing on this subject gave national pub-
licity to critics of the agency, raised significant
questions about nuclear reactor safety, and re-
vealed that the AEC had been less than forth-
coming about reactor safety problems.
By 1973, the AEC was severely buffeted by con-
troversy. Critics asserted that the agency had
sacrificed its responsibility to regulate the atom
in the public interest to its desire to promote
nuclear science and technology. Many charged
that the agency faced an inherent conflict of in-
terest between its roles of regulating and
promoting the atom. Sentiment grew for abol-
ishing the agency and vesting protection of pub-
lic safety in an independent regulatory agency.
Impact of the Energy Crisis
The AEC faced credibility problems as the coun-
try faced an energy crisis. Energy problems had
started with the northeast power blackout of
1965, which had interrupted electric power for
nearly 30 million people. Over the next 2 years,
20 other major power failures occurred across
the nation. By decade’s end, many sensed that an
energy crisis was approaching and expected
greater Federal action to solve the problem. The
oil embargo of 1973-1974 deepened the sense
of crisis.
j Figure 1 5. A patient prepared for treatment with charged atomic
j particles at Lawrence Radiation Laboratory (now Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory).
One result of the energy crisis was a movement
to unify scattered Federal energy programs under
a single organization. In 1973, President Nixon
unsuccessfully proposed a Department of Energy
and Natural Resources. Then, in late 1 974, Con-
gress passed the Energy Reorganization Act of
29
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap Co the Story and the Records
1974, which abolished the AEC and established
the Energy Research and Development Adminis-
tration (ERDA), a single energy research agency,
and another agency, the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission, which was given the AEC’s regula-
tory functions. ERDA also inherited the nuclear
development and weapons-related programs of
the AEC.
The Energy Research and Development
Administration
ERDA had a much broader energy mission than
did the AEC. The new agency conducted energy
research and development in wind, solar, geo-
thermal, and fossil-fuel energy technologies as
well as nuclear energy technologies. ERDA also
began comprehensive Federal energy research
and development planning, publishing annual re-
search and development plans. In addition, the
agency created a new solar energy research in-
stitute. The bulk of ERDA’s facilities, personnel,
and contractors, however, came from the AEC.
In 1974, the Government adopted uni-
form regulations requiring independent
institutional review boards to approve all
experiments and requiring written in-
formed consent.
ERDA inherited the AEC biomedical research
programs, facilities, and its Division of Biomedi-
cal and Environmental Research, as well as its
weapons research and production missions. In
1974, the Government adopted uniform regula-
tions for all Federal agencies involved in human
experimentation, including ERDA. These regula-
tions required independent institutional review
boards to approve all experiments before they
took place. All subjects also had to provide writ-
ten evidence of informed consent.
The most controversial biomedical problem
ERDA inherited involved the wartime plutonium
injection experiments. By now, documents re-
lated to the experiments had been declassified,
although knowledge about them was largely con-
fined to biomedical circles. In 1967, Patricia
Durbin, a radiobiologist at the Lawrence Radia-
tion Laboratory, learned that several patients
injected in 1945 were still alive. She urged that
the AEC examine them to obtain additional data
about the retention and excretion of plutonium.
The University of Rochester, which still oper-
ated under an AEC biomedical research con-
tract, was authorized in 1973 to conduct medical
examinations of three of the four surviving sub-
jects. While official agency policy mandated full
disclosure, the three were not told that they had
been injected with plutonium nor was the rea-
son for their reexamination revealed. After
learning of this, the AEC commissioners ordered
an investigation and directed that full disclosure
be made to the subjects. The AEC did not, how-
ever, reveal the experiments to the public.
ERDA officials later published detailed informa-
tion about the experiments in 1976.
The U.S. Department of Energy
ERDA had little time to build energy research
and development programs. The perceptions
that the Nation was in an energy crisis deep-
ened, fueled by a natural gas shortage that
closed plants, businesses, and schools in New
England during the severe winter of 1976-1977.
Spurred by the crisis, President Carter sent a
proposal to Congress in 1977 to unify Federal
energy policy planning and research and devel-
opment units in one Cabinet-level department.
Congress acted on the proposal promptly, and
the Department of Energy (DOE) came into ex-
istence in October 1977.
The Department of Energy absorbed the Federal
Power Commission, the Federal Energy Adminis-
tration, and other smaller energy programs as
well as all ERDA facilities, laboratories, production
plants, and its division of biomedical and environ-
mental research. The Department also became
responsible for nuclear and other energy technol-
ogy development, for nuclear weapons develop-
ment, and for energy-related biomedical and envi-
ronmental research, including human radiation
experimentation activities. DOE inherited ERDA’s
radiation research activities and the regulations
that the agency had promulgated to protect hu-
man subjects. Biomedical research activities were
assigned to the office of energy research. By this
time, predecessor agencies had established a leg-
acy of research in biomedical research, including
human radiation experiments.
30
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: DOE Predecessor Agencies
Headquarters Records Collections
DOE headquarters records are rich and compar-
atively easy to find and use. The Department has
custody of most AEC and ERDA headquarters
records, while nearly all Manhattan Project head-
quarters records have been transferred to the
National Archives and Records Administration.
AEC records are extraordinarily valuable, cover-
ing agency activities in a breadth and depth sel-
dom found in government records collections.
All records for AEC regulatory activities are in
the custody of the Nuclear Regulatory Commis-
sion.
For material pertinent to human radiation ex-
periments, the records of the AEC Secretary
(1958-1975) and of its Division of Biology and
Medicine are the most valuable. Both document
AEC decision-making on biomedical issues and
agency oversight over biomedical programs. Be-
yond the institutional context of human radia-
tion experiments, both collections contain some
documentation about individual clinical experi-
ments and both contain crucial documentation
about the AEC’s 1 974 investigation of the pluto-
nium injection experiments.
Most AEC headquarters records are in the cus-
tody of archivists or historians and are preserved
either in the DOE History Division or Office of
Human Radiation Experiments. Recently DOE has
transferred some important AEC records to the
National Archives, including portions of the AEC
Secretary’s files (1946-1958) and of the Division
of Biology and Medicine files. DOE will transfer
additional AEC records to the National Archives
in the future. More recent records are in the cus-
tody of DOE program offices and are, at this
time, more difficult to access. The agency is, how-
ever, working to bring these records under intel-
lectual control.
There are limitations on documentary access
due to classification and privacy. Although most
AEC biomedical program data — including infor-
mation about human radiation experiments —
was never classified, it may be intermixed with
other information or documents which were, or
are, classified. DOE has recently devoted sub-
stantial resources to declassifying AEC records,
but researchers may still encounter classified
headquarters documentation. Researchers may
request declassification reviews of collections, or
portions of them. Few headquarters records
have privacy restrictions. Researchers can also
request that such documents be released to
them, with the deletion of information which
would identify individuals.
Department of Energy headquarters re-
cords are rich and comparatively easy to
find and use.
AEC headquarters records are divided between
National Archives and DOE custody. Because
some AEC headquarters units operated out of
Oak Ridge in the agency’s early days, some AEC
headquarters records are stored in Oak Ridge in
DOE custody or in Atlanta in National Archives
custody. The series described in the portion of
Chapter 2 dealing with Oak Ridge, contain some
headquarters records.
*
31
Hu man Radia tio n Experiments: The D OE Roadm ap to t he Story and th e R ec o rds
Commission
SERIES TITLE Office of the Secretary (Secretariat Records), Correspondence Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 958-1 975
ARRANGEMENT
VOLUME
AEC Subject/Numeric Filing System (subject files)
Chronological order (Commission meeting minutes)
435 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These files were compiled by the Secretary to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission
(AEC) to create the official record of Commission decisions and actions. They contain
documentation on agency policies, origins, structure, functions, missions, controver-
sies, and activities at the highest level of the agency. The Department of Energy has
custody of portions of the Secretary’s files pertaining to promotional matters. They
document agency policy formulation on budgets, nuclear weapons programs, nuclear
reactor programs, special nuclear materials production programs, biomedical pro-
grams, environmental programs, contracts, security matters, and organizational
problems. They contain information on agency policies and standards for human
subject research. They also contain letter reports of Advisory Committee on Biology
and Medicine meetings, reports and meeting minutes of other advisory committees,
and documentation on the AEC’s 1974 investigation of the plutonium injection experi-
ments. The series includes AEC information and division staff paper, letters, and
memorandums showing implementation of policy decisions, excerpts of minutes of
formal Commission meetings, and complete minutes of Commission meetings. Col-
lection numbers 6, 8, 9, 10, 20.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
DOE Germantown Building, Room F-036
19901 Germantown Road
Germantown, MD 20585
32
Chapter 2, Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Atomic En erg y Commission
SERIES TITLE Office Files of Chairman Gordon E. Dean
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 949-1 953
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 4 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The Dean office files consist of a typescript copy of Dean’s office diary and a set of
his reader files. They were compiled by Dean’s secretary and document the issues
and problems that came before Dean as an AEC commissioner and as AEC chair-
man. The major subjects covered are AEC weapons programs, expansion of special
nuclear materials production programs, the hydrogen bomb program, security prob-
lems such as atom spy cases, and AEC budget and personnel matters. The diary
contains scattered entries on biomedical policies, programs, and activities. The Dean
office files include diary materials, letters, memorandums, and reports. A folder title
inventory is available. Collection number 1110.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and a small amount of classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
DOE Germantown Building, Room F-036
19901 Germantown Road
Germantown, MD 20585
SERIES TITLE Office Files of Commissioner Willard F. Libby
INCLUSIVE DATES 1946; 1954-1966; 1969
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 11 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The Libby office files were created by Libby’s office staff and they primarily document
his service as an AEC commissioner. One box of materials consists of classified
documents compiled by Libby after he left the AEC. The series documents top agency
policy formulation and includes files on nuclear weapons programs, Project Sunshine,
agency basic research programs, biomedical programs, and radioisotopes programs.
The Sunshine files (2 boxes) document Libby’s leadership of the project. The Libby
office files include memorandums, letters, reports, handwritten notes and calculations,
clippings, and published articles. Save for a set of reader files, they are arranged by
a subject filing system devised by Libby’s staff. A folder title inventory is available.
Collection number 1114.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and a small amount of classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
DOE Germantown Building, Room F-036
19901 Germantown Road
Germantown, MD 20585
33
Human Radiation E xperiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story an d t he Rec ords
SERIES TITLE Office Files of Commissioner James T. Ramey
INCLUSIVE DATES
ARRANGEMENT
VOLUME
DESCRIPTION
1 962-1 973
Subject
68 cubic feet
The Ramey office files were compiled by his office staff and document his services
as an AEC commissioner. They capture top agency policy formulation on matters in
which Ramey was most interested. These include civilian nuclear power programs,
regulatory programs, nuclear desalting programs, and the liquid metal fast breeder
reactor program. They also contain files on the artificial heart program, cancer re-
search, and research in AEC laboratories. The Ramey office files consist of corre-
spondence files of memorandums, letters, reports, meeting notes and minutes, news
clippings, handwritten notes, and published reports. They are arranged by a subject
filing system devised by Ramey’s staff. A folder title inventory is available. Collection
number 326741.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and a small amount of classified information.
LOCATION OF Washington National Records Center
RECORDS Suitland, MD 20409
SERIES TITLE Office Files of Chairman Dixy Lee Ray
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 972-1 975
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 30 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The Ray office files were compiled by her staff to document her tenure as AEC com-
missioner and as AEC chairman. They document top agency policy formulation and
include materials on civilian nuclear power programs, reactor safety programs, the
liquid metal fast breeder program, Plowshare programs, and nuclear weapons pro-
grams. They also contain files on biomedical research, nuclear medicine, laboratory
research activities, and minutes and reports of meetings of AEC advisory committees.
The Ray office files consist of correspondence files of memorandums, letters, reports,
meeting notes and minutes, news clippings, handwritten notes, and published reports.
They are arranged by a subject filing system used by the AEC chairman’s office. A
folder title inventory is available. Collection number 326765.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and a small amount of classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Washington National Records Center
Suitland, MD 20409
34
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Atomic Energy Commission
'
SERIES TITLE Office Files of Chairman James R. Schlesinger
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 971 -1 974
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 35 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The Schlesinger office files were compiled by his office staff to document his tenure
as AEG chairman. They capture top agency policy formulation and include material
on Schlesinger’s reorganization of agency operational and regulatory activities. They
include files on laboratory and other research programs, civilian nuclear power pro-
grams, reactor safety programs, the liquid metal fast breeder reactor program, nu-
clear weapons programs and other national security matters. They also contain min-
utes and reports of meetings of AEG advisory committees. The Schlesinger office files
consist of correspondence files of memorandums, letters, reports, meeting minutes
and notes, news clippings, handwritten notes, and published reports. A folder title
inventory is available. Collection number 326765.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and a small amount of classified information.
LOCATION OF Washington National Records Center
RECORDS Suitland, MD 20409
SERIES TITLE Office Files of Chairman Glenn T. Seaborg
INCLUSIVE DATES 1961-1971
ARRANGEMENT AEC Subject/Numeric Filing System
VOLUME 250 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The Seaborg office files were compiled by the chairman’s office staff and document
Seaborg’s tenure as AEC chairman. They capture top agency policy formulation and
contain files on virtually all subjects that came before Seaborg including nuclear test
ban negotiations, nuclear weapons programs, the fallout controversy, civilian nuclear
power programs, basic research programs, laboratory research programs, special
nuclear materials programs, the liquid metal fast breeder reactor program, and others.
They include files on the formulation of biomedical policies and on biomedical pro-
grams and activities as well as reports of the Advisory Committee on Biology and
Medicine and Seaborg’s correspondence with the committee. The Seaborg office files
consist of correspondence files of memorandums, letters, reports, meeting notes and
minutes, news clippings, handwritten notes, and published documents. A folder title
listing is available. Collection number 326766.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and classified information.
LOCATION OF Washington National Records Center
RECORDS Suitland, MD 20409
35
Human Radiation E xp erime nts : The DOE Roadm ap to the Story and the Reco rds
SERIES TITLE Files of the General Manager’s Office
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 947-1 975
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 184 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The General Manager’s office files were largely compiled by deputy general managers
and assistant general managers so the General Manager’s office files largely docu-
ment policy implementation by these officials. The series includes documentation on
Atoms for Peace programs, civilian nuclear power programs, security matters, agency
organization and management, special nuclear materials production programs, and
nuclear waste programs. It contains a few files on biomedical programs. It is an
important source for program council meeting minutes, which contain information on
early agency policy formulation pertaining to biomedical and other programs. The
series also contains the office diaries of general managers Carroll L. Wilson and
Marion W. Boyer and of deputy general managers Walter Williams and Carlton
Shugg. The diaries may contain scattered references to biomedical programs and
activities. Other files which may contain references to biomedical programs and
activities are the office reader files and chairman and commissioner memorandum
files. The general manager’s office files consist of correspondence files of memoran-
dums, letters, reports, meeting notes and minutes, news clippings, handwritten notes,
and technical reports. A folder title inventory is available. Collection number 1135.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
DOE Germantown Building, Room F-036
19901 Germantown Road
Germantown, MD 20585
SERIES TITLE Division of Biology and Medicine, Central Correspondence and Related Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 947-1 974
ARRANGEMENT AEC Subject/Numeric Filing System
VOLUME 53 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The Division of Biology and Medicine (DBM) files were compiled to document the
implementation of agency biomedical policies and programs. Most were compiled by
a central mail room unit. They include documentation on biomedical research pro-
grams at agency laboratories, university biomedical research funded by the AEC, the
1 950s fallout controversy, Project Sunshine, biomedical activities at nuclear weapons
tests, and the 1974 investigation of the plutonium injection experiments. The division
files consist of correspondence files of memorandums, letters, staff papers, contracts,
reports, meeting minutes, handwritten notes, and published reports. They are orga-
nized into several individual collections. They include a complete set of minutes of the
meetings of the Advisory Committee on Biology and Medicine, a statutory body which
provided advice to the division director. A folder title inventory is available. Collection
numbers 1 1 29, 1 1 32, 1 1 33, 1 1 94, 1 353, 1 709.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
DOE Germantown Building, Room F-036
19901 Germantown Road
Germantown, MD 20585
36
Chapt e r 2. Narrat i ves and R e cords Serie s — I nstitutiona l Areas: A tomic Ene r gy Commissio n
SERIES TITLE Division of Biology and Medicine , Central C orrespondence Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 956-1 975
ARRANGEMENT AEC Subject/Numeric Filing System
VOLUME 37 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These Division of Biology and Medicine (DBM) files were compiled by a central mail
room unit. They include documentation on biomedical research programs at agency
laboratories, university biomedical research funded by the AEC, the 1950s fallout
controversy, the thermal pollution controversy, and the AEC’s implementation of the
National Environmental Policy Act. The series consists primarily of subject files of
correspondence for the years 1970, 1971, 1973, and 1975. The series contains
memorandums, letters, staff papers, contracts, reports, handwritten notes, and pub-
lished reports. Collection numbers 7239, 6586, 6793, 7249, 7723.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains a small amount of classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
DOE Germantown Building, Room G-017
19901 Germantown Road
Germantown, MD 20585
SERIES TITLE Division of Biology and Medicine, Plutonium Injection Investigation Files
INCLUSIVE DATES C a. 1 945-1 988
ARRANGEMENT Numerically by human subjects case number (Medical files)
Subject (case files)
VOLUME 3.3 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The records were created or collected by AEC staff during the 1974 investigation of
the plutonium injections. They document information on persons who were injected
with plutonium between 1945 and 1947 and provide information on the measurement
of the plutonium excretion rate and the plutonium body content of several subjects by
the staff of Argonne National Laboratory many years after injection. The files also
contain medical information relating to health status at the time of injection, medical
status at the time of measurement in the mid 1970s, and death certificates for those
deceased. They contain documentation relevant to the 1972-1974 search and contact
efforts, and to the scientific investigations conducted as part of the Argonne National
Laboratory follow-up efforts. The follow-up studies focused on three persons who
were alive in the 1970s and four persons who had died. For the living subjects the
purpose was to determine the excretion rate long after injection. For the decreased
subjects, the purpose was to determine the amount of plutonium retained by the body
at the time of death and to evaluate the degree to which the plutonium had redistrib-
uted within the skeleton. The files contain original records created by AEC/division
and Argonne staff, ANL’s copies of records created by others before Argonne’s follow-
up studies. The series consists of patient records, letters, memorandums, reports,
handwritten notes, and charts. No index is available. Collection number OHRE 1.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
U.S. DOE, Office of Human Radiation Experiments
1726 M Street NW, Suite 200
Washington, DC 20036
37
Human Ra diatio n Exp erime nts: Th e DOE Ro a dmap to the Story and the Re cor ds
SERIES TITLE Division of Biology and Medicine, Radiation Exposure (“Special Case") Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 945-1 962
ARRANGEMENT AEC Subject/Numeric Filing System
VOLUME 4 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series consists entirely of files which document exposures of individuals and
groups to radiation. Most seem to be occupational or accidental exposures. The
series includes files on exposures of named individuals, the Marshallese Islanders in
1954, the Lucky Dragon crew in 1954, radium cases, and weapons testing personnel.
The series was consolidated into a special collection by the AEC Division of Biology
and Medicine. The series contains letters, memorandums, reports, and telegrams. A
folder title listing is available. Collection number 326783.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains a small amount of classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
DOE Germantown Building, Room G-017
19901 Germantown Road
Germantown, MD 20585
38
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Atomic Energy Commission
SERIES TITLE Office of the General Counsel, Central Correspondence Files
INCLUSIVE DATES C a. 1 947-ca. 1 977
ARRANGEMENT AEC Subject/Numeric Filing System
VOLUME approximately 210 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series consists of central correspondence files compiled by the General Counsel
to advise the AEC commissioners on legal and policy issues. Some files which were
once a part of the series have been destroyed. The remaining files document General
Counsel advice on issues such as weapons testing, compliance with the National
Environmental Policy Act, land acquisition, and other matters. The files may contain
documentation on biomedical policy, including General Counsel advice on procedures
and ethics for human subject research. Access to some documents may be restricted
due to attorney-client privilege. The series contains correspondence files of letters,
memorandums, AEC staff papers, handwritten notes, and reports. No folder title
inventory or listing is available. No collection number.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and a small amount of classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
James Forrestal Building, Room 7E-054
1000 Independence Avenue, SW
Washington, DC 20585
SERIES TITLE Office of the General Counsel, Contract Files
INCLUSIVE DATES C a. 1 947-ca. 1977
ARRANGEMENT Name of institution
VOLUME approximately 145 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series is primarily composed of information copies of contracts sent to the Gen-
eral Counsel’s Office. It includes information about activities covered under contracts,
but does not appear to include General Counsel’s opinion about the contents. It does
not include copies of all AEC contracts, but does include copies of AEC contracts with
University of California (Berkeley and Los Angeles) and Brookhaven. The series
consists of copies of contracts, modifications to them, and correspondence pertaining
to contracts. No folder title inventory or listing is available. No collection number.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and a small amount of classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
James Forrestal Building, Room 7E-054
1000 Independence Avenue SW
Washington, DC 20585
39
Hum an Radiati on Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to th e Sto ry and the R e cords
SERIES TITLE Division of Military Applications, Central Correspondence Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 947-1 974
ARRANGEMENT AEC Subject/Numeric Filing System
VOLUME 43 cubic feet, exclusive of films
DESCRIPTION The Division of Military Application (DMA) files were compiled by a central mail facility
to document the organization’s role in implementing policy decisions pertaining to
nuclear weapons testing, nuclear weapons accidents, and the 1969 Rocky Flats plant
fire. They contain a few scattered documents on radiological warfare activities. The
DMA files consist of correspondence files of memorandums, letters, staff papers,
reports, and handwritten notes. They are organized into several collections and most
are arranged according to the agency’s Subject/Numeric Filing System. A folder title
inventory is available. Collection numbers 1178, 1179, 1185, 1188, 1189, 1336.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
DOE Germantown Building, Room F-036
19901 Germantown Road
Germantown, MD 20585
SERIES TITLE Division of Personnel, Directives Case Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 947-1 971
ARRANGEMENT Numbered directive
VOLUME 33 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series contains regulations covering most agency activities. The regulations were
issued in different series such as GM (General Manager) Bulletins or AEC Manual
Chapters. The directives also include official statements of responsibilities and author-
ities for most AEC program offices. The series consists of copies of official regulations
and the documentation pertaining to them. A folder title listing is available. Collection
numbers 4802, 6578, 6286, 5674.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains a small amount of classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
DOE Germantown Building, Room G-017
19901 Germantown Road
Germantown, MD 20585
40
Chap t er 2. Narra tives and Records Seri es — Inst itutional Are as: Atomic Energ y Commission
SERIES TITLE Division of Personnel, Federal Advisory Committee Records
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 948-1 974
ARRANGEMENT AEC Subject/Numeric Filing System
VOLUME 4 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series documents the organization and management of AEC advisory commit-
tees, including the Advisory Committee on Biology and Medicine, the Advisory Com-
mittee on Isotopes and Radiation Development, and the Advisory Committee on
Medical Use of Isotopes. It does not include minutes of meetings of the committee or
reports of committee meetings. The series consists of correspondence files of letters
and memorandums. A folder title listing is available. Collection number 6693.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
DOE Germantown Building, Room G017
19901 Germantown Road
Germantown, MD 20585
SERIES TITLE Office Files of L Joe Pea I
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 945-1 981
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 14 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The Deal office files are comprised of materials assembled by Deal during his service
in Atomic Energy Commission, Energy Research and Development Administration,
and Department of Energy organizations with responsibilities for biomedical research
and operational safety matters. They include extensive documentation on nuclear
weapons testing activities and their health effects. They also include documentation
on other operational safety matters. The Deal office files consist of correspondence
files of letters, memorandums, reports, handwritten notes, and charts. They are
arranged by a subject filing system devised by Deal’s secretary. A folder title inventory
is available. Collection number 1368.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains a small amount of classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
DOE Germantown Building, Room F036
19901 Germantown Road
Germantown, MD 20585
41
Human Radiation Experiment s : The DOE Ro a dmap to the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Office Files of Thomas McCraw
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 949-1 986
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 23 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The McCraw office files consist of materials assembled by McCraw during his service
in Atomic Energy Commission, Energy Research and Development Administration,
and Department of Energy organizations with responsibility for biomedical and opera-
tional safety activities. They contain extensive documentation on safety of nuclear
weapons testing and health effects of weapons testing. They also include files on the
fallout controversy of the 1950s, the nuclear rocket program, and advisory committee
on biology and medicine meetings. The office files consist of letters, memorandums,
reports, handwritten notes, meeting minutes, and charts. A folder title inventory is
available. Collection number 1320.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
DOE Germantown Building, Room F-036
19901 Germantown Road
Germantown, MD 20585
SERIES TITLE Field Office Progress Reports
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 947-1 963
ARRANGEMENT
VOLUME
DESCRIPTION
Field site
10 cubic feet
The series documents construction, routine operations, and extraordinary activities
at AEC field sites such as Hanford, Oak Ridge, and Savannah River. Virtually all early
AEC field activities are documented by this series. It contains materials on subjects
such as weapons production, special nuclear materials production, aircraft nuclear
propulsion, and reactor development. The Hanford weekly report for the first week of
December 1949 contains a reference to the Green Run. The series consists entirely
of periodic progress reports. A folder title inventory is available. Collection number
1708.
RESTRICTIONS This series is entirely classified.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
DOE Germantown Building, Room F-036
19901 Germantown Road
Germantown, MD 20585
42
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Atomic Energy Commission
SERIES TITLE Periodic Progress Reports
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 947-1 965; 1 967-1 968
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 20 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series consists of periodic reports of activities of some Atomic Energy Commis-
sion headquarters organizations and of activities overseen by the agency’s major
operations offices. It also contains some General Manager’s monthly reports of activi-
ties and some monthly reports to the agency’s General Advisory Committee. Runs of
these reports vary considerably in time periods covered. Many reports were compiled
by the AEC’s Division of Finance to help AEC commissioners trace construction
activities and the implementation of policy decisions. The series includes reports of
biomedical activities as well as of weapon, reactor development, and other activities.
The series consists of monthly and weekly reports arranged by organizational unit or
chronologically. A folder title inventory is available. Collection number 1342.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
DOE Germantown Building, Room F-036
19901 Germantown Road
Germantown, MD 20585
SERIES TITLE Program Reports to Joint Committee on Atomic Energy
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 947-1 973
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION The series contains a partial set of quarterly progress reports to the Joint Committee
on Atomic Energy. In the reports, the AEC described agency progress and major
activities in biomedical, basic research, reactor development, and other program
areas. A few contain information on radiological warfare activities. The AEC placed
material on agency progress and major activities in weapons and production pro-
grams into separate parts of the quarterly reports, which were stored and maintained
separately. Some of these weapons and production sections are in this series. The
series consists entirely of reports, which are arranged chronologically. A folder title
inventory is available. Collection number 1172.
RESTRICTIONS This series is entirely classified.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
DOE Germantown Building, Room F-036
19901 Germantown Road
Germantown, MD 20585
43
Human Ra diation Experi ments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Progress Reports to Joint Committee on Atomic Energy
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 953-1 964
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION The series contains a partial set of quarterly progress reports to the Joint Committee
on Atomic Energy. In the reports the AEC described agency progress and major
activities in biomedical, basic research, reactor development, and other programs.
The AEC placed material on agency progress and major activities in weapons and
production programs into separate parts of the quarterly reports, which were stored
and maintained separately. None of the separate weapons and productions sections
are included in this series. This series consists entirely of reports, which are arranged
chronologically. A folder title inventory is available. Collection number 1378.
RESTRICTIONS This series is entirely classified.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
DOE Germantown Building, Room F-036
19901 Germantown Road
Germantown, MD 20585
44
C h apter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Energy Research & Development Administration
U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration
SERIES TITLE Administrator's Mail Facility Correspondence Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 975-1 977
ARRANGEMENT ERDA Subject/Numeric Filing System
VOLUME 115 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series consists of files compiled to capture the official decisions, policies, actions,
and activities of the agency’s top official. The series contains a section on biomedical
programs and policies which include materials on controversial matters as well as
routine biomedical program activities. The series contains letters, memorandums,
briefing charts, reports, and meeting notes. A folder title listing is available. Collection
numbers 1216, 1217, 1218, 1220, 1221, 1223.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains a small amount of classified information.
LOCATION OF Washington National Records Center
RECORDS Suitland, MD 20409
45
Human Radia tion Experiments: The DO E Roa dmap Co the Story and the Rec ords
U.S. Department of Enei
SERIES TITLE Office of Health and Environmental Research,
Research and Development Project Case Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 954-1 990
ARRANGEMENT Contract
VOLUME 40 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents biomedical research performed under contract to DOE and
DOE predecessor agencies. Some of the files were originally part of the AEC Division
of Biology and Medicine files. The research was performed by individuals, such as
Hymer Friedell and Lester Van Middlesworth, and institutions such as Vanderbilt
University, Massachusetts General Hospital, and the Universities of Rochester, Cin-
cinnati, and Washington. The series contains letter and other reports of research,
contrasts, memorandums, and documentation related to conferences and symposia.
A folder title listing is available. Collection numbers 3267716, 326801, 430848,
4308413, 434879, 4348746, 4348676, 434802, 4348778, 4348925, 4348959,
43490341, 43490207, 4348921, 4348932, 4349022, 43490346, 434805, 4308620,
430872, 4348638, 4348687, 434803, 434849, 4348446, 4348447, 4348448, 4348449,
4348450, 4348410, 4308619, 4308618, 3268624, 4348710, 4348711, 4348712,
4348747, 4348748, 4348749, 4348750, 4348751, 4348677, 4348178, 4348679,
4348926, 4348927, 4348960, 43490342, 43490208, 43490209, 4348922, 4348923,
4348933, 43490226, 43490267, 43490228, 43490341 , 4348623, 4348624, 4348623,
4348626, 4348627, 434871, 434872, 434873, 434874, 434875, 434876, 430871,
4348669, 4348688, 4348689, 4348690.
LOCATION OF Washington National Records Center
RECORDS Suitland, MD 20409
SERIES TITLE Office of Health and Environmental Research,
Research and Development Project Case Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 957-1 979
ARRANGEMENT Contract
VOLUME 87 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series documents biomedical research performed under contract to DOE and
DOE predecessor agencies. Most appear to have been on ecological or environmen-
tal topics, although some human subject research may be documented in the series.
Some of the files were originally created by the AEC Division of Biology and Medicine.
The series contains letter and other reports of research, contracts, memorandums,
and documentation related to conferences and symposia. A folder title listing is avail-
able. Collection numbers 6115, 6187, 6203, 6246, 6655, 7155, 430851, 430854,
430853, 7358, 7507, 4348455, 4308412, 4348224, 326825, 4348680, 4348765,
4348766, 4348764, 93078G, 7724, 4348518, 4348519, 430847, 4348444, 4348445,
434804.
46
LOCATION OF DOE Germantown Building, Room G-017
RECORDS 19901 Germantown Road
Germantown, MD 20585
Ch a pter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Argonne National Laboratory
Argonne National Laboratory
The Site Today
Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) is a
multiprogram research laboratory near Chicago,
IL. Argonne undertakes basic and applied re-
search and conducts experimental and theoreti-
cal programs in the physical, life, and environ-
mental sciences. The Laboratory also operates
programs for advanced fission reactors and
other technologies.
Argonne runs 25 major research facilities,
among them four particle accelerators, a fossil-
energy laboratory, and a national storage-battery
test facility. In 1 992, Argonne employed a staff of
more than 4,600 and had an operating budget of
more than $390 million. The University of Chi-
cago operates the Laboratory for the U.S. De-
partment of Energy.
Site History
Argonne evolved from the Metallurgical Labora-
tory, which the Office of Scientific Research and
Development (predecessor to the Manhattan
Engineer District) organized to support the
atomic bomb project. Early in 1942, Arthur
Holly Compton, the scientist-administrator re-
sponsible for the project’s plutonium studies,
decided to consolidate his Columbia and Prince-
ton University research groups at the University
of Chicago. Compton also moved Glenn
Seaborg’s plutonium chemistry research from
the University of California to Chicago. This
consolidation of scientific resources formed the
Metallurgical Laboratory, or Met Lab as it be-
came known.
The Met Lab’s primary job was to design nuclear
reactors and chemical processes for plutonium
production. Met Lab scientists focused their ini-
tial work on achieving a self-sustaining nuclear
chain reaction. Led by Enrico Fermi, this goal
was achieved on December 2, 1942, when the
world’s first sustained nuclear chain reaction
took place under Stagg Field in Chicago.
The laboratory subsequently built and operated
small research reactors outside Chicago in the
Argonne Forest Preserve. In 1943, the Met Lab
worked with E. I. du Pont de Nemours Com-
pany to design a reactor pilot plant in Oak Ridge
and in building the full-scale plfltonium produc-
tion reactors at Hanford, WA.
The Met Lab was organized around four groups:
a nuclear physics division; a chemistry division; a
plutonium separation division; and, after July
1942, a health division. The health division was
established to study the unique occupational
hazards associated with the project. The pluto-
nium production reactors would produce un-
precedented radiation, and there was a pressing
need to devise protective measures for labora-
tory employees. These measures were tied to
collecting radiation exposure data and conduct-
ing experiments into the metabolism and toxi-
cology of radioactive substances.
Although Compton received directives from the
Manhattan Project for laboratory program work,
the Met Lab was an integral part of the Univer-
sity of Chicago. The laboratory was housed in
university buildings on the campus, and
Compton held a university appointment as dean
of the Physical Sciences Department. Many other
scientists on the Met Lab staff were likewise
members of the university faculty. The university
kept direct control of the facility’s administrative
matters, and the laboratory’s administrative offi-
cer reported to the university’s business man-
ager, not to Compton. By the fall of 1 943, cru-
cial activity in the plutonium project had shifted
from Chicago to Oak Ridge and Hanford. The
Met Lab became a vital part of the du Pont team
that was building the Oak Ridge pilot reactor
and the full-scale Hanford production reactors.
Met Lab scientists focused their initial
work on achieving a self-sustaining nu-
clear chain reaction.
The Manhattan District formed Argonne National
Laboratory (ANL) in 1946. Argonne drew many
of its staff and facilities from the Met Lab, and the
University of Chicago continued as the laboratory
operating contractor. The Laboratory moved its
operations to the current DuPage County site
during the early 1950s. Postwar activities focused
on thermal reactor research, and later on design
47
Human Radiation Experim ents: The DOE Ro admap to the Story and the Records
of a breeder reactor that would create new sup-
plies of nuclear fuel while it operated.
Walter Zinn was the first ANL director. He orga-
nized the Laboratory into divisions of chemistry,
biology, radiological physics, medicine, metallurgy,
hazard evaluations, mass spectroscopy, instru-
ment research, instrument fabrication, informa-
tion, and patents. Three of these divisions had
missions that touched on biomedical research.
The biology division investigated the effect of ra-
diation on plants and animals. A medical division
provided routine health services to laboratory
employees and conducted research into the toxic
and radiological effects of heavy metals. The ra-
diological physics division conducted routine
monitoring programs, set general radiation safety
standards for laboratory personnel, kept all per-
sonnel radiation exposure records, and worked
on new radiation monitoring instruments.
Under Zinn, Argonne gained preeminence in
reactor development, and the AEC briefly con-
sidered placing all agency reactor work at the
laboratory. Zinn and other Argonne scientists
played an important role in selecting a proving
ground in Idaho to build the breeder and other
experimental reactors. Argonne designed a pres-
surized water reactor as the prototype propul-
sion unit for the nation’s first nuclear submarine.
ANL also designed the heavy-water moderated
and cooled reactors used as production units at
the AEC Savannah River plant.
Argonne National Laboratory and its pre-
decessor, the Met Lab, participated in
clinical human radiation experiments.
During the 1960s Argonne hoped to lead in the
development of commercial breeder reactors. In
1963, the AEC authorized Argonne to design a
Fast Reactor Test Facility. In late 1965, however,
the project was canceled, and by the late 1 960s
Argonne was exploring alternative energy
sources and environmental science. As the Labo-
ratory diversified, it reorganized units with du-
ties related to biomedical research. During the
late 1960s and early 1970s, the AEC built a Cen-
ter for Human Radiobiology (CHR) at Argonne
to study individuals exposed to internal radia-
tion; most of the people followed were dial
painters who had ingested radium before World
War II. Laboratory administrators placed the
CHR in the Radiological and Environmental Re-
search Division.
Site Human Radiation Experiments
ANL and its predecessor, the Met Lab, partici-
pated in clinical human radiation experiments.
The most noteworthy were the plutonium injec-
tions at the University of Chicago’s Billings Hospi-
tal during 1 945. The Met Lab also analyzed excre-
tion data from subjects, and analyzed tissues
taken at autopsies from subjects who died from
preexisting ailments shortly after the injections.
Figure 1 6. Clinical test of an artificial kidney developed by Argonne
National Laboratory (circa 1970).
Met Lab scientists took part in another experi-
ment to learn how best to measure plutonium:
in 1946, six Met Lab employees volunteered to
drink a solution containing a small amount of
plutonium. The gastrointestinal absorption and
fecal excretion rates of the ingested plutonium
were then measured.
The Laboratory appears to have conducted few
other clinical experiments. Known experiments
include late 1940s studies involving radioactive
phosphorus tracers to study human metabolism
and radioactive arsenic to treat cancer. During
the 1950s, ANL administered radioactive sodium
to subjects. In the early 1 960s, laboratory scien-
tists prepared tritiated thymidine for collaborat-
ing scientists who used it to inject hospitalized
cancer patients. The Laboratory also worked
with staff at the separate Argonne Cancer
48
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Ar gonne National Laboratory
Research Hospital (as described later in the Uni-
versity of Chicago narrative).
The primary ANL human research project fo-
cused on the adverse health effects of radium
deposited in the bodies of pre-war radium dial
painters. This research involved medical, epide-
miological, and dosimetric follow-up studies.
These estimated the radiation doses received by
the dial painters and linked these doses to ad-
verse health effects, providing data crucial to the
establishment of internal radiation occupational
exposure limits.
Argonne has valuable records collections
documenting activities pertinent to hu-
man radiation experiments.
Argonne moved beyond the radium studies and
became involved in follow-up examinations of
the survivors of the plutonium injection experi-
ments. When Patricia Durbin learned in the late
1960s that four of the subjects injected with plu-
tonium were still alive, she urged the AEC to do
follow-up examinations. The Center for Human
Radiobiology was authorized by the AEC to initi-
ate the follow-up studies in 1973. In accordance
with instructions from AEC Headquarters, the
subjects were not initially informed of the true
reason for the examinations. These events are
described more fully below in the discussion of
the plutonium injections.
Site Records Collections
Argonne has valuable records collections docu-
menting activities pertinent to human radiation
experiments. Although the laboratory has trans-
ferred one older collection of records to the
National Archives and Records Administration,
it retains many original records, some of which
date from the Metallurgical Laboratory. The lab-
oratory has some intellectual control over them,
and users will have an easier time here than at
some other sites. The Center for Human Radio-
biology has the richest collections, containing
detailed documentation on the effects of radia-
tion on radium dial painters and other groups
exposed to radiation outside the laboratory.
These collections also document evolving bio-
medical knowledge about the health effects of
radiation.
Researchers will find some Argonne records,
including a large collection of laboratory note-
books, classified. Other restrictions may also
apply. Many notebooks dating from the Met Lab,
for example, are contaminated with radioactivity
and must be copied before use. As noted, a col-
lection of older, classified Argonne records has
been transferred to the National Archives in
College Park, MD. Researchers must await its
declassification before these records are openly
available.
49
Hum an Ra dia tion Experiment s: The D OE Roadmap to the Story an d the Records
Argonne National Laborator
SERIES TITLE Laboratory Director’s Files
INCLUSIVE DATES C a. 1950-ca. 1990
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 80 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series consists of records held in storage for the Office of the Director and docu-
ments the range of activities in which the Laboratory has been involved such as
reactor development and high-energy physics research. The records include files
related to human health research such as information on the development of an
artificial kidney and files related to the Institutional Review Board. The series contains
administrative records and correspondence files, reviews, and reports.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Argonne National Laboratory
Records Holding Center, Building 4
Argonne, IL 60439
Federal Records Center
7358 South Pulaski
Chicago, IL 60629
INCLUSIVE DATES ca. 1 91 5-ca. 1 993
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME approximately 1,500 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These records were created, identified, or collected by the staff of the Center for
Human Radiobiology. They document efforts to locate persons with prior occupa-
tional, iatrogenic or experimental exposures to internally deposited radioactivity; the
results of those efforts; and the results of dosimetric, medical, and epidemiological
follow-up of the subjects over a period of years following first contact. The follow-up
studies were focused primarily on radium, but included exposures to other radio
elements and radioactive substances that emitted alpha particles. Among these were
thorium, plutonium, americium, and thorotrast. This series is broken down into sub-
series according to the type of radioactivity involved or to distinguish the follow-up of
a clearly defined experimental exposure from the follow-up of other radium exposure.
The subseries are: Austin Brues; Occupational and Iatrogenic Exposure to Radium;
Elgin State Hospital Follow-up of Experimental Exposure to Radium; Occupational
Exposure to Thorium; and Other Radioelements and Circumstances of Exposure.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Argonne National Laboratory
RECORDS Environmental Research Division
Building 202, Room A354
Argonne, IL 60439
50
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Argonne National Laboratory
SERIES TITLE Health Effects of Exposure to Internally Deposited Radioactivity:
, Austin Brues Subseries
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 943-1 982
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 3 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This subseries contains materials assembled by Austin Brues during his tenure as
director of the Argonne Biology Division and its successors, while he was a staff
member of those divisions, as Medical Director of the Center for Human Radiobiology,
and after his retirement. The subseries documents Brues’s professional medical
research interests and activities. It has material on the state of knowledge about the
health effects of radiation and some material on the hazards of beryllium and pluto-
nium. These records were maintained by Austin Brues and were incorporated into the
collection of the Center for Human Radiobiology in the late 1980s and early 1990s
because they document the activities of the early Argonne Laboratory and of the
Center for Human Radiobiology. The subseries contains letters, memorandums,
reports, professional papers, published articles, news clippings, graphics, and charts.
It also includes correspondence with private physicians and with Manhattan Engineer
District and Atomic Energy Commission officials. (See Miscellaneous Austin Brues
Material.)
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Argonne National Laboratory
RECORDS Environmental Research Division
Building 202, Room A354
Argonne, IL 60439
51
Hu man Radiati on Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and th e Re cords
SERIES TITLE Health Effects of Exposure to Internally Deposited Radioactivity:
Occupational and Iatrogenic Exposure to Radium Subseries
INCLUSIVE DATES 1915-1993
ARRANGEMENT Subject
Numerical (case files)
VOLUME approximately 1,470 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These records were created or collected by the staff of the Center for Human Radiobi-
ology. They document efforts to locate persons with prior occupational or iatrogenic
exposure to radium including the study of the radium dial painters. They include
records of these follow-up efforts including notes and correspondence; records of
medical examinations of subjects conducted by physicians employed by the Center
for Human Radiobiology; other medical records released by the subjects to the Cen-
ter; records of medical tests carried out on the subjects (e.g., blood chemistry, diag-
nostic radiography, bone densitometry); records of the measurement of radioactivity
in the bodies of the subjects; records of the measurement of radioactivity in tissues
of the subjects (e.g., teeth supplied by the subjects, or if the subject was examined
after death, of bone samples and soft tissue); records of the measurement of radioac-
tivity in the urine or feces of subjects; records of request for the willing of the body for
scientific study after death and of consent for those subjects who granted permission;
records of request for exhumation of (long) dead subjects and of consent by
next-of-kin who granted permission; records of consent of living subjects to participate
in the study; budget proposals to DOE; materials prepared for presentation to review
committees and comments received from them; published papers; records compiled
by employers such as personnel records and workplace radiation surveys; x-ray films
from diagnostic x-ray examination; raw data from analytical procedures; various
schedules; and other pertinent information.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Argonne National Laboratory
RECORDS Environmental Research Division
Building 202, Room A354
Argonne, IL 60439
52
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Argonne National Laboratory
SERIES TITLE Health Effects of Exposure to Internally Deposited Radioactivity:
Elgin State Hospital Subseries
INCLUSIVE DATES C a. 1950-ca. 1983
ARRANGEMENT Subject/Numerical (case files)
Alphabetical (individual subject files)
VOLUME 2 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The records were created or collected by the staff of the Center for Human Radiobiol-
ogy. They document attempts to locate persons who had been injected with radium
as an experimental therapy for mental disorders. The experiment was conducted in
the early 1930s many years before the formation of the AEC or Argonne National
Laboratory. The records contain information on the radium content of most of the
subjects located, medical information relating to the subjects’ admission to the state
mental hospital, the results of periodic medical examinations, the cause of death for
deceased subjects, and the death certificate. The files contain original records cre-
ated at Argonne National Laboratory as well as copies of other records.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Argonne National Laboratory
RECORDS Environmental Research Division
Building 202, Room A354
Argonne, IL 60439
SERIES TITLE Health Effects of Exposure to Internally Deposited Radioactivity:
Occupational Exposure to Thorium Subseries
INCLUSIVE DATES ca. 1 935-ca. 1 985
ARRANGEMENT Subject
Numerical (case files)
VOLUME approximately 20 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These records contain information on the follow-up study of thorium deposited in
humans where exposure was incidental to thorium refining and gas mantle manufac-
turing operations. This work was funded by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission
under the title “Health Effects of Industrial Exposure to Thorium.” The efforts of the
Center for Human Radiobiology were similar to those described in the subseries
Occupational and Iatrogenic Exposure to Radium and consequently the types of
records are similar. Some specific differences were the absence of a full skeletal
diagnostic x-ray examination, the absence of bone densitometry, and the addition of
lung function testing. (See Health Effects of Exposure to Internal Radioactivity: Occu-
pational and Iatrogenic Exposure to Radium Subseries)
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Argonne National Laboratory
RECORDS Environmental Research Division
Building 202, Room A354
Argonne, IL 60439
53
H uman Radiation E xperiments: The DOE Roadm a p Co the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Health Effects of Exposure to Internally Deposited Radioactivity:
Other Radioelements and Circumstances of Exposure Subseries
INCLUSIVE DATES C a. 1 945-1 985
ARRANGEMENT Subject
Numerical (case files)
VOLUME approximately 5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These records were created or collected by the staff of the Center for Human Radiobi-
ology in the course of dosimetric work on persons exposed to a variety of radioactivity
including incidental exposure, self employment, or medical procedures that involved
use of a radiographic contrast medium called thorotrast. They include records of the
measurement of radioactivity in the people and their excreta, plus any medical infor-
mation that the subjects may have authorized for release to Argonne. Such radioele-
ments and substances as protactinium, thorotrast, plutonium, americium, and stron-
tium were among those included in this work. They also include any past records
pertinent to the subject matter (e.g., the radioactivity associated with thorotrast).
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Argonne National Laboratory
RECORDS Environmental Research Division
Building 202, Room A354
Argonne, IL 60439
SERIES TITLE Environmental Research Division Office Collection of
Center for Human Radiobiology Administrative Records
INCLUSIVE DATES C a. 1 989-ca. 1 993
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series consists of administrative records from the closing years of the Center for
Human Radiobiology and document the management and closeout of the project
during this period. The records include material transmitted to the Environmental
Research Division when responsibility for the Center was transferred to that Division
from the Division of Biological and Medical Research in 1991, as well as records
generated thereafter.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Argonne National Laboratory
RECORDS Environmental Research Division
Building 203, ER Division Office
Argonne, IL 60439
54
Chapter 2 . Narrat iv es and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Argonne National Laboratory
SERIES TITLE Center for Human Radiobiology Miscellaneous Records
INCLUSIVE DATES C a. 1915-ca. 1993
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 20 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These are records stored in the Center for Human Radiobiology archives that are not
covered by the other records series descriptions. They include miscellaneous adminis-
trative and scientific records: for example, two 1944 notebooks from the Metallurgical
Laboratory provide log sheets of information on occupational radiation exposure and
data on personnel measurements made such as blood samples drawn from the em-
ployees to monitor blood reactions to the radiation environment. The records also
include extensive information on a study of lung cancer mortality in the state of Penn-
sylvania, carried out by the Center in the late 1 980s for the Department of Energy.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Argonne National Laboratory
RECORDS Environmental Research Division
Building 202, Room A354
Argonne, IL 60439
SERIES TITLE Institutional Review Board Records
inclusive DATES 1 971 -present
ARRANGEMENT Chronological (Legal Dept.)
Subject (Medical Dept.)
VOLUME approximately 3 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series consists of the records of the Argonne Institutional Review Board. Two
sets of records are maintained, one by the Committee Secretary for the Legal Depart-
ment and the other by the Committee Chairman for the Medical Department. The
records contain minutes of meetings; correspondence between members; memos;
letters confirming the appointment of the Chairman and members; materials submit-
ted to the Committee for review; and a variety of other information considered perti-
nent to the interests or functioning of the Committee. The records include brief infor-
mation on all research projects submitted to the IRB for review. These projects have
been funded by a variety of sources, including the Department of Energy and its
predecessors, the National Institutes of Health, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission,
the Veterans Administration, and the International Atomic Energy Agency.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Argonne National Laboratory
RECORDS Legal Department, Building 201, Second Floor
Medical Department, Building 201, First Floor
Argonne, IL 60439
55
H uman Radiation Experi ments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Nuclear Medicine Research
INCLUSIVE DATES C a. 1970-ca. 1992
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME approximately 0.3 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION Consist of administrative documents, progress reports, grant proposals, award rec-
ommendations, publication reprints, and miscellaneous research records of work
carried out in the nuclear medicine program. The records have information that helps
to define the scope of the nuclear medicine program and the significant collaborations
with medical institutions who conducted human subject experiments with materials
produced at Argonne.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Argonne National Laboratory
RECORDS Chemistry Division
Office Building 200
Argonne, IL 60439
SERIES TITLE Miscellaneous Austin Brues Materials
INCLUSIVE DATES C a. 1892-ca. 1982
ARRANGEMENT Subject (correspondence files)
Author (reprints)
VOLUME 40 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These are records created and collected by Austin Brues during his lifetime. Brues
was the first director of the Argonne National Laboratory Biology Division and a mem-
ber of the Metallurgical Laboratory staff. They are the residuum of a larger collection
that was reviewed by members of the Center for Human Radiobiology in the late
1980s and early 1990s. The staff of the Center selected items for integration into its
own collection and destroyed others that were considered irrelevant. This series
includes correspondence files containing letters, memorandums, notes, trip reports,
and lectures. The series also includes an extensive collection of journal article reprints
related to Brues’ professional interests in the health effects of radiation and biology,
laboratory notebooks, slides, and photographs. A folder title listing is available to this
series. (See Health Effects of Internally Deposited Radioactivity: Austin Brues Subse-
ries.)
LOCATION OF Argonne National Laboratory
RECORDS Environmental Research Division
Building 202, Room A354
Argonne, IL 60439
56
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Argonne National Laboratory
SERIES TITLE In Vivo Measurement of Lead
INCLUSIVE DATES C a. 1 985-ca. 1992
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 6 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series contains information about the measurement of lead in vivo by an external
irradiation method. The concentration of lead in bone of the tibia was measured in 51
military personnel by directing an external beam of x rays at the leg and measuring
the scattered radiation. The work was part of a study to evaluate the effects of lead
exposure among artillerymen when firing weapons, sponsored by the U.S. Army
Research and Development Command. The study and its results are described more
fully in a report entitled Lead Exposures and Biological Response Among U.S. Army
Artillerymen, released by the Army Medical Research and Development Command.
Included in this series are administrative, research, data, analysis, and reporting
records.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Argonne National Laboratory
RECORDS Center for Mechanistic Biology and Biotechnology
Building 202, Room B273
Argonne, IL 60439
SERIES TITLE Metabolism and Dosimetry of Radon
INCLUSIVE DATES 1982
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME approximately 0.3 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION This series contains administrative and research records, including data, from a pilot
study done by Argonne in response to growing awareness that radon contributed
more to natural background radiation than had been recognized. There was specula-
tion that radon daughters might contribute to the risk of certain illnesses but little was
known about radon’s distribution or retention in the body. Six employees of the Center
for Human Radiobiology stayed overnight in the home of a coworker where mildly
elevated levels of radon gas had been found. They were then measured for radon
content and exhalation rate at Argonne.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Argonne National Laboratory
RECORDS Environmental Research Division
Building 202, Room A354
Argonne, IL 60439
57
Hu man Radiatio n Experiments: The DOE Roadm ap to the St o ry and the Re cords
SERIES TITLE Plutonium Ingestion Studies
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 946
ARRANGEMENT Alphabetical by name of employee (radiation protection records)
Subject and chronological (committee files)
VOLUME approximately 0.3 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION These records consist of occupational radiation exposure data and a Metallurgical
Laboratory internal memo describing the research and its context, and presenting
results. The records provide information on a human radiation experiment involving
the ingestion of a plutonium containing solution by six employees of the Metallurgical
Laboratory on May 1 3, 1 946.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Argonne National Laboratory
RECORDS Environment, Safety and Health
Division, Building 201
Argonne, IL 60439
Argonne National Laboratory
Records Holding Center, Building 4
‘Argonne, IL 60439
SERIES TITLE Radiation Protection Records
INCLUSIVE DATES
ARRANGEMENT
VOLUME
DESCRIPTION
ca. 1945-present
(See subseries descriptions)
approximately 155 cubic feet
The records in this series are from the radiation protection program of Argonne, and
to some extent, of the Metallurgical Laboratory. The series consists of four subse-
ries: Bioassay, Internal Dosimetry, Personnel Monitoring, and Administrative.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Argonne National Laboratory
Argonne, IL 60439
58
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Argonne National Laboratory
SERIES TITLE Radiation Protection Records: Bioassay Subseries
INCLUSIVE DATES C a. 1 945-ca. 1 987
ARRANGEMENT Chronological (logbooks)
Alphabetical by name (cards)
VOLUME 20 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These records consist of approximately 80 logbooks from the bioassay programs of
the Metallurgical Laboratory and Argonne National Laboratory plus record cards which
summarize the data in the logbooks. These records give the type and amount of
radioactivity in biological samples from the employees and other persons for which
sample analyses were requested, as part of the radiation protection or assay pro-
grams of the Met Lab, Argonne, or the requesting institution. The logbook entries
identify the sample type; the person submitting it; the type of radioactivity, radioiso-
tope, or radioelement for which the radiochemical analysis is being carried out; and
raw data on the results of measurements made. There may be some brief explanatory
information on the reason for the analysis, and codes were generally used to distin-
guish routine, special request, repeat samples, etc., from one another. Notebook
Number 1 , also marked as Metallurgical Laboratory Notebook 596C, contains the data
for the plutonium ingestion experiment that was initiated May 13, 1946, at the Metal-
lurgical Laboratory. The notebooks also contain information on exposures to employ-
ees that occurred through routine and accidental operations. It is unknown whether
the notebooks provide analyses for samples, other than those already noted, that are
from subjects in human experiments. The summary record cards provide duplicate
information on the May 13, 1946, experiment and other samples.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Argonne National Laboratory
Records Holding Center, Building 4
Argonne, IL 60439
SERIES TITLE Radiation Protection Records: Personnel Monitoring Subseries
INCLUSIVE DATES
ARRANGEMENT
VOLUME
DESCRIPTION
RESTRICTIONS
ca. 1945-present
Alphabetical by name
50 cubic feet
This series consists of exposure records for employees who were issued personnel
monitoring badges for the measurement of external radiation exposure.
This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Argonne National Laboratory
RECORDS Environment, Safety and Health Division
Personnel Monitoring Group
Building 202, R Wing
Argonne, IL 60439
59
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Radiation Protection Records: Administrative Subseries
INCLUSIVE DATES C a. 1950-ca. 1987
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 60 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These are administrative records of the radiation protection program at Argonne. They
consist of routine reports, review documents, and correspondence. These records
contain information about research activities that involved radiation, as seen from the
perspective of the radiation protection staff who provided support through the issu-
ance of personnel dosimetry badges, review of designs, follow-up on accidents that
occurred, etc.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Argonne National Laboratory
Argonne Records Holding Center, Building 4
Argonne, IL 60439
SERIES TITLE Radiation Protection Records: Internal Dosimetry Subseries
inclusive DATES C a. 1 950-present
ARRANGEMENT Chronological (correspondence and subject files)
Alphabetical (individual exposures)
VOLUME approximately 25 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series consists of records of the occupational internal dosimetry program at
Argonne National Laboratory, excluding the bioassay records in the Bioassay Subse-
ries. The records include computer listings of data, subject matter files on accidental
radiation exposures, records of exposure for individual employees by name, corre-
spondence, etc. The records include dose values for employees who were subjects
in the National Cancer Institute supported study of dose interactions between passive
smoke and radon gas. It is unknown whether the records contain information on other
studies in which employees participated as subjects.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Argonne National Laboratory
RECORDS Environment, Safety and Health Division
Dosimetry and Analytical Services Section
Building 200, F Wing
Argonne, IL 60439
60
Cha pter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Argonne National Laboratory
SERIES TITLE Radon and Passive Smoking
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 985-1 990
ARRANGEMENT None
VOLUME approximately 5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series consists of administrative and research records, including data, relating
to the exposure of human subjects to radon daughter products in an exposure cham-
ber. A proposal was made and funded by the National Cancer Institute to study the
possible modification of radon daughter exposure at home from passive smoking. In
order to interpret data collected by body counting in the field, it was necessary to
establish a method for distinguishing between radon daughter products deposited in
the lungs and those deposited on the skin and clothing. To do so, Argonne employees
were exposed in a chamber containing radon gas and daughter products and then
measured in a whole body counter to determine radon daughter uptake. In some
cases subjects breathed air free of radon and radon daughter products; in others they
breathed air in the room. By combining different exposure regimes it was possible to
gain understanding of the division of radon daughter product activity between the
clothing, skin, and lungs.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Argonne National Laboratory
RECORDS Environmental Research Division
Building 202, Room A354
Argonne, IL 60439
SERIES TITLE AN L Technical Reports
INCLUSIVE DATES 1946-present
ARRANGEMENT Alphanumeric by report number
VOLUME 208 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series consists of scientific and technical reports created by ANL employees and
their subcontractors to fulfill contractual requirements. These records document
research and development performed by or for ANL. They include topical, progress
(quarterly, semiannual, and annual), final, administrative, and special-interest reports,
and conference proceedings. Progress reports of divisions that conducted biomedical,
human health, and environmental research are part of this series. Copies of most of
these reports are also available from DOE’s Office of Scientific and Technical Infor-
mation (OSTI). These reports provide descriptions of work that was completed or in
progress during the reporting period and include progress reports issued by the
Center for Human Radiobiology on the follow-up of humans exposed to radioactivity.
Some classified technical reports exist at the Laboratory and are maintained sepa-
rately.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Argonne National Laboratory
RECORDS Technical Information Services Department
Building 316, Room A136
Argonne, IL 60439
61
Human Radiation Experiments: T he DOE Roa dmap to the Story and t he Records
SERIES TITLE ANL Technical Notebooks
inclusive DATES 1943-present
ARRANGEMENT Alphanumeric
VOLUME 294 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series consists of technical notebooks issued by Argonne National Laboratory
and its predecessor, the Metallurgical Laboratory, to employees and contractors to
record experimental procedures and data; scientific and technical ideas and concepts;
lecture and seminar notes; and other information. Also included are several logbooks
which, in addition to use as finding aids for the technical notebooks, provide informa-
tion on the history of the notebooks, (e.g., when issued, names of users, when re-
turned, when declassified, and other information). The logbooks provide information
on the organizational structure of the Metallurgical Laboratory. These records occa-
sionally identify subjects or hospital patients. They were the working documents of the
holders and therefore describe what projects they were working on, and what they
thought important. For example, a notebook of R.S. Stone contains mention of the
need to gain information on plutonium metabolism from humans, and seems to antici-
pate the plutonium injection experiments that were carried out at various locations
during 1945-1947. Some classified laboratory notebooks exist and are maintained
separately.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material; some notebooks have radioactive contami-
nation.
LOCATION OF Argonne National Laboratory
RECORDS Technical Information Services Department
Information and Publishing Division
Building 316, Room A136
Argonne, IL 60439
SERIES TITLE Argonne News
inclusive DATES 1 951 -present
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series consists of a complete set of the Argonne News, a periodic news publication
of Argonne National Laboratory. Argonne News prints articles on research conducted
at the Laboratory, articles on Argonne history, and articles on general subjects of hu-
man interest. Some articles discuss the work of investigators known to have been
engaged in human subjects research, such as an article describing a visit of
Marshallese Islanders to Argonne for whole body counting.
LOCATION OF Argonne National Laboratory
RECORDS Office of Public Affairs
Building 201, Second Floor
Argonne, IL 60439
62
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Brookhaven National Laboratory
Brookhaven National Laboratory
The Site Today
Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) is a
multiprogram research laboratory owned by
DOE and located on 5,300 acres on Long Island
near Upton, NY. The laboratory is managed and
operated by a consortium of universities known
as Associated Universities, Inc., (AUI) under
contract with DOE. Approximately 3,300 em-
ployees work at BNL along with over 4,000 an-
nual visiting researchers. With an annual budget
of about $400 million, the Laboratory conducts
basic and applied research in the physical, bio-
medical, and environmental sciences, as well as
in selected energy technologies.
Figure 1 7. A subscale model of the nuclear reactor used for medical
research and treatment at Brookhaven National Laboratory.
Brookhaven was unburdened with the
secrecy restrictions placed on many facili-
ties with wartime legacies.
Brookhaven is the location of several “big ma-
chines.” The Alternating Gradient Synchrotron
is a particle accelerator used to probe the essen-
tial structure of matter. A High Flux Beam Reac-
tor produces neutron beams for use in various
research efforts. The National Synchrotron Light
Source is the world’s largest facility for scientific
research using imaging x-ray, ultraviolet, and in-
frared radiation. A Scanning Transmission Elec-
tron Microscope permits detailed study of
atomic structures. A Relativistic Heavy Ion
Collider, opening shortly, will accelerate ions to
the speed necessary to simulate conditions in-
volved in the creation of the universe.
Site History
AUI proposed the creation of Brookhaven in
1 946 as a laboratory to facilitate cooperation be-
tween universities and the Federal government in
performing research in physics and nuclear sci-
ence. Camp Upton, an Army training center and
rehabilitation hospital, was selected as the site. In
1947, the AEC negotiated a contract with AUI to
operate the Laboratory. Brookhaven was one of
the first facilities dedicated to nuclear research in
peacetime. As a result, it was unburdened with
Figure 18. A patient receiving treatment at Brookhaven Medical
Department Hospital (circa 1961).
the secrecy restrictions placed on many facilities
with wartime legacies.
Brookhaven’s Graphite Research Reactor, which
opened in 1 950, was one of the world’s first nu-
clear reactors available for nondefense research.
Two years later, the Cosmotron began opera-
tion, eventually becoming the first particle accel-
erator to achieve one billion electron volts. A
Tandem Van de Graaff electrostatic accelerator
also was built and used to study the mechanics
of nuclear reactions and the structural com-
pounds of nuclei. The Alternating Gradient Syn-
chrotron began operations in I960 and strongly
influenced research that led to three Nobel
Prizes in high-energy physics.
63
Human Radi ation Experiments: The DOE R oadmap to the Sto ry and the R ecord s
Brookhaven researchers have also worked in
various other fields. Laboratory chemists doing
solar neutrino experiments during the 1960s
prompted reconsideration of stellar evolution
theories. The laboratory has studied energy pro-
duction and conservation, including the use of
natural thermal storage in building construction.
Brookhaven also conducts special materials re-
search and has played an important role in nu-
clear reactor safety research.
Health and biology activities have been a continu-
ing element of the Laboratory’s program. During
the 1 960s, Brookhaven physician George Cotzias
used the drug L-dopa to successfully treat Parkin-
son’s disease. The medical department has moni-
tored the health of Marshall Islanders exposed to
radioactive fallout from the 1 954 Castle-Bravo
nuclear weapons test on the Bikini Atoll. Since
then, Brookhaven physicians and health physicists
have made annual trips to the islands to monitor
the health of exposed persons.
Site Human Radiation Experiments
The Brookhaven Medical Department has per-
formed much human research. As at other sites,
the department’s initial role was to provide oc-
cupational medical services. A major clinical re-
search program began at Brookhaven in 1948,
when Congress appropriated funds to the AEC
specifically for cancer research.
A major clinical research program began
at Brookhaven in 1948.
The first patients came to the Brookhaven hos-
pital in 1949. From the outset, the Laboratory’s
Medical Department used the hospital for exper-
imental diagnosis, treatment, and research.
One of the major experimental programs, begun
in 1951, was boron neutron capture therapy
(BNCT). Boron compounds were injected into
patients with untreatable brain tumors, and the
patients were positioned by a reactor port to
receive neutron beams. Since boron attracts (or
“captures”) neutrons, it was hoped that the
technique would allow larger doses of radiation
to be applied to tumors without damaging
healthy tissue. The treatment was not successful
and the clinical program ended in 1961 after
treating 45 patients. Changes in technology have
recently led to renewed interest in BNCT. In
September 1 994, a Brookhaven research facility
closed to patients for over 2 decades was re-
commissioned and a modified version of the
technique was used on one patient under an ap-
proved protocol.
Figure 1 9. Study of carbohydrate-lipid metabolism at Brookhaven.
Some of the first Brookhaven patients partici-
pated in studies involving the use of iodine- 1 3 1 .
From 1 949 through 1961, researchers used
iodine- 1 3 1 to treat cancer and Graves’ Disease; in
tracer doses for in vivo thyroid counting; and as a
label for serum albumin to detect blood plasma
turnover rates. Brookhaven researchers also used
carbon- 1 4 to study metabolic pathways and the
interrelationships of carbohydrate and fat metab-
olism with glucose oxidation. Most of the labora-
tory’s studies had a link to cancer research.
The Medical Department has also worked in ar-
eas other than cancer research. During the 1 950s
and 1 960s, the department did diabetes research;
other investigations focused upon the effect of
radiation on humans, animals, and plants. Isotope
tracers were given to Brookhaven hospital pa-
tients for metabolic studies. In the early 1950s,
the department did experiments on children with
a degenerative kidney disease by using sodium-24
and radioiodinated human gamma globulin. The
experiments were performed to study the effect
of these radioactive agents on the kidney and kid-
ney functions. Brookhaven has also used radioac-
tive thymidine, a constituent of DNA that carries
the genes, to measure the life span of various
kinds of cells. Individual site experiments are de-
tailed in Chapter 3.
64
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Brookhaven National Laboratory
Figure 20. A parkinsonian patient before (left) and during administration of L-dopa at Brookhaven. Radioactive materials
were useful in the development of L-dopa.
65
Human Ra di ation Expe rim ents: The DOE R o admap to the Story and the Records
The Brookhaven hospital closed in 1974, as did
the two other AEC cancer research hospitals.
Nonclinical biomedical research has continued,
and currently includes studies of cancer, bone
disease, and the effects of exposure to radiation
and other energy-related agents. Major studies
of brain structure and the processes associated
with cocaine and alcohol addiction are also in
progress.
Site Records Collections
Brookhaven has good documentation for its role
in human radiation experiments. Most of these
files are in the custody of the BNL Clinical Re-
search Center. They include periodic reports of
the Medical Research Center, minutes and agen-
das for clinical oversight committees, and Pro-
posal and Authorization for Research or Devel-
opment Forms (Form 189). Also extant are vari-
ous indexes and listings documenting hospital
treatments and research activities. Perhaps the
most significant record series are those that
cover study protocols and human subjects re-
search policies.
There are, however, some gaps in the documen-
tation. Few programmatic records exist for the
boron-neutron capture therapy treatments at
the facility during the 1950s and 1960s. A com-
plete picture of site practices and polices for
patient selection, informed consent, and experi-
ment authorization is lacking. Moreover,
Brookhaven has yet to bring its records fully
under intellectual control through an effective
records program. The records that have been
found to date remain in laboratory custody and
there are some limitations on access.
66
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Brookhaven National Laboratory
Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL)
SERIES TITLE Minutes and Agendas for Clinical Oversight Committees
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 952-1 994
ARRANGEMENT Record type; chronologically thereunder
VOLUME 5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These are the minutes and agendas for clinical oversight committees, which include
the Executive Committee, Governing Body, Medical Records Committee, Patient Care
Committee, Infection Control Committee, Medical Staff Committee, and Medical Care
Evaluation Committee. The Medical Records Committee spans the period between
1955 to 1968. The sections are divided by year and each year contains: memoran-
dums of committee membership; committee meeting minutes; and BNL Hospital
Clinical and Statistical Summary Sheets which have sample forms, draft forms includ-
ing one on Authorization for Release of Clinical Information, proposed rules and
regulations, captions for isotope index cards, evaluation of patient laboratory forms,
and samples of approved patient consent forms. The Governing Body records begin
in 1957 and contain bylaws and minutes of the governing board of the medical re-
search center hospital of BNL; memorandums; forms for initiation and review of the
clinical investigative program; forms for administration of radioisotopes to humans;
and draft medical records. The Medical Staff Committee operated from 1960 to 1974,
and was superseded by the Executive Committee, which is documented by instruc-
tions for the operation of the hospital; bylaws, rules, and regulations for the medical
staff; memorandums relating to compliance with the policies of accreditation associa-
tions, including the Federal regulations on health insurance for the aged. Medical
Care Evaluation Committee records are from 1971 and contain information on patient
care evaluations.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Brookhaven National Laboratory
RECORDS Clinical Research Center
Building 490
Upton, NY 11973
67
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE James Robertson Files
INCLUSIVE DATES C a. 1 950-ca. 1 974
ARRANGEMENT Record type
VOLUME 17 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This material consists of records maintained by Dr. James Robertson during his
tenure at BNL from 1950-1974. Robertson served as the head of the BNL Medical
Division and, after leaving BNL, as head of the DOE Office of Health and Environmen-
tal Research in Washington, DC. Included are 10 boxes of Robertson’s office chrono-
logical and subject files, as well as seven boxes of assorted patient data. The office
files discuss various aspects of Robertson’s administrative duties as well as his
professional activities. Topics discussed include acquisition and distribution of iso-
topes, operation of the BNL hospital, proposed and ongoing studies, and Robertson’s
involvement with other projects and programs such as the Armed Forces Special
Weapons Project. The patient data references boron neutron capture therapy, Parkin-
son’s disease patients, and growth hormone studies. The data is in the form of charts
and observation logs and often contains quantitative measurements of dosages, vital
signs, and other indicators.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Brookhaven National Laboratory
RECORDS Clinical Research Center
Building 490
Upton, NY 11973
SERIES TITLE Authorization for Isotope Administration to Patients
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 957-1 962
ARRANGEMENT Alphabetical by patient
VOLUME 0.25 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION These forms pertain to patients receiving isotopes. There are a few handwritten
memos dispersed throughout this series from physicians concerning the isotope
administration forms. Each form contains personal information about the patient and
other information including: diagnosis, expected longevity, reproductive status, BNL
physician, and isotope to be administered. The forms also have an approval date and
are signed by the chairman of the Medical Department. In addition, for some patients
there are addenda to the request for authorization to use isotopes.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Brookhaven National Laboratory
RECORDS Clinical Research Center
Building 490
Upton, NY 11973
68
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Brookhaven National Laboratory
SERIES TITLE Bibliography of Medical Department Researchers
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 950-present
ARRANGEMENT Varies
VOLUME 0.25 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION This series is a list of all published articles by members of the Medical Department.
There is a list of authors with corresponding BNL reprint numbers. Some of the pages
give the journal name and the citation but most have only the title of the study, the
researchers name and the BNL number. The BNL Clinical Research Center has all
the articles corresponding to this list of publications. The list is an aid in locating
particular published articles corresponding to any research activity conducted by BNL
researchers, including experiments involving human subjects.
LOCATION OF Brookhaven National Laboratory
RECORDS Clinical Research Center
Building 490
Upton, NY 11973
SERIES TITLE Human Medical Research Study Protocols
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 950-1 994
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 10 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series contains protocols for approved human studies projects. Starting in Janu-
ary 1950, the protocols consist of brief memorandums from the BNL Committee on
Use of Radioactive Isotopes in Human Subjects stating that the committee has
granted approval for the use of a particular isotope in human subjects. There are also
memorandums, from physicians to the committee, describing their study proposals.
Other types of correspondence include letters from the Isotope Division at Oak Ridge,
TN, to BNL requesting further information on an application or stating that certain
applications for proposed studies will be forwarded to the Subcommittee on Human
Applications at Oak Ridge; and letters on BNL collaborative projects, written both by
BNL researchers and by researchers at other institutions. Also included is an index
of requests for use of isotopes in humans; and supplemental requests for projects.
Each proposal to study radioactive isotopes in humans records the number of pa-
tients, purpose, isotope, dosage, and other physicians involved in the study. Each of
these proposals is a separate experiment and several contain charts, graphs, photo-
graphs, and reprints of journal articles. From 1964 the forms change to Initiation of
Review of Clinical Investigative Programs from physicians at BNL to the Committee
and memorandums of approvals from the Committee on Clinical Investigations and
Uses of Radioisotopes.
LOCATION OF Brookhaven National Laboratory
RECORDS Clinical Research Center
Building 490
Upton, NY 11973
69
H uman Radiat ion Ex periments: Th e DO E Roa dmap to the Story and th e Records
SERIES TITLE Human Subjects Research Policies
INCLUSIVE DATES 1947-1963; 1970-1973
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 0.25 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION These records consist of two subgroups. The earlier group pertains to the implemen-
tation of human subjects research policies at the Brookhaven Medical Research
Center. Included are minutes and agendas for medical staff meetings; AEC isotope
circulars; correspondence with AEC program offices, including the Isotopes Branch
and the Division of Biology and Medicine; and internal BNL memorandums. Subjects
covered include policies regarding relations with local doctors, AEC policies for use
of isotopes on human subjects; medical research programs; and establishment and
operation of the local isotopes committee. The primary subject pertains to establish-
ment of the Brookhaven Clinical Investigation Radioisotope Committee in compliance
with Department of Health, Education, and Welfare requirements for institutional
review of proposed human studies.
LOCATION OF Brookhaven National Laboratory
RECORDS Clinical Research Center
Building 490
Upton, NY 11973
SERIES TITLE Isotope Index Cards
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 950-1 957
ARRANGEMENT
VOLUME
Index type
0.25 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION This series consists of two indexes relating to BNL hospital patients. The first is a
collection of 5- by 9-inch orange cards filed by isotope name (e.g., boron, carbon,
iodine). Included is patient surname, unit number, sex, age, number of times adminis-
tered, doctor, and general remarks. The second index is labeled “Log of Radioactive
Administrations to Patients,” and is filed chronologically by date of administration.
Included is the name of patient, isotope, dose, and how administered (e.g., tracer,
therapeutic, intraperitoneal, intravenous).
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Brookhaven National Laboratory
RECORDS Clinical Research Center
Building 490
Upton, NY 11973
70
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Brookhaven National Laboratory
SERIES TITLE Medical Research Center Forms
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 949-present
ARRANGEMENT None
VOLUME 0.25 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION This series contains a variety of Medical Research Center forms. Most of these are
blank. The forms include: hospital forms, medical record forms, dietary forms, phar-
macy forms, industrial medicine forms, research forms, clinical chemistry forms, and
microbiology forms. Other documents include charts; forms for progress notes; x-ray
exam requests and reports; occupational therapy requests; nurses admission reports
and notes; supply forms; temperature and pulse charts; adverse drug reactions;
nuclear medicine examination requests; release of clinical information; applications
for participation in a clinical research program; history and physical examination
forms; discharge summaries; isotope radiation summaries; consent on admission to
hospital forms; internal isotope radiation summaries; and consent for procedure,
study, or drug under clinical investigation.
RESTRICTIONS
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
This series contains privacy material.
Brookhaven National Laboratory
Clinical Research Center
Building 490
Upton, NY 11973
SERIES title Quarterly and Annual Reports of the Medical Research Center
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 948-1 963
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 0.5 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION This series consists of three bound volumes of the quarterly and annual reports,
which are medical, scientific and administrative progress reports of the Medical Re-
search Center. Each report has a general introduction and then is divided into the
divisions of the Medical Center. Divisions include Medical Practice, Division of Pathol-
ogy, Hospital Division, Division of Bacteriology, Division of Biochemistry, Division of
Physiology, Division of Industrial Medicine, Genetics, Division of Physiology, and the
Division of Medical Physics. Not all of these divisions are represented in each prog-
ress report. Some progress reports also have the activities of the Associated Universi-
ties, a list of officers and scientific staff, list of publications and papers presented.
Some progress reports contain organizational charts, discussions of advisory commit-
tees and major facilities. Each of the sections contains information on research,
medical, and scientific activities. The sections contain information on animal and
human experimentation.
LOCATION OF Brookhaven National Laboratory
RECORDS Clinical Research Center
Building 490
Upton, NY 11973
71
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Ro adm ap to the Sto ry an d the Records
SERIES TITLE Patient Medical Records
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 949-1 994
ARRANGEMENT Numeric
VOLUME approximately 370 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION Each patient treated at the Medical Research Center has a file containing medical
records; there are about 13,000 individual files. The Medical Center treated a variety
of cancers; mostly they specialized in brain tumors and thyroid carcinoma. The files
contain personal information on the patient, the treating physician’s notes, laboratory
records, consent forms, medical follow-up notes, a list of the types of radiation the
person was exposed to, hospital authorization forms, autopsy records, order forms,
medication forms, photographs, charts, and graphs. Most files also contain a corre-
spondence section that contains copies of letters between the medical staff and the
patient, or, in the case of children, the patient’s parents.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Brookhaven National Laboratory
RECORDS Clinical Research Center
Building 490
Upton, NY 11973
SERIES TITLE Physician Index Cards
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 949-1 969
ARRANGEMENT
VOLUME
Alphabetical by physician
0.25 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION Each card has the physician's name, the unit number, the patient's names, and treat-
ment results. Posting to the cards was incomplete to 1/1/56, but from 1/1/56 to
12/31/65 posting occurred on a regular basis. From 1965 to 1967 indexing was in-
complete. Five additional categories of cards are also present. These categories
cover diseases and each contains a few cards with patient information. Categories
are asthma, bronchitis, granulomatous, fiberglass, small airways, emphysema, and
deformities. These cards contain names and other patient information.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Brookhaven National Laboratory
RECORDS Clinical Research Center
Building 490
Upton, NY 11973
72
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Brookhaven National Laboratory
SERIES TITLE Proposal and Authorization for Research or Development (Form 189)
(Medical Division Copies)
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 950-ca. 1 977
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 2 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These forms were used by BNL (as well as other DOE contractors) to propose re-
search projects and receive funding from AEC/DOE program offices. Included for
each project is title, date, contractor/laboratory, location, contract number, budget
number, classification, progress reporting method, person in charge, status, pur-
pose/need/scope (narrative description), related projects, accomplishments (ongoing
project), expected results, and anticipated problems. Multiple forms for different years
are present for ongoing projects.
LOCATION OF Brookhaven National Laboratory
RECORDS Clinical Research Center
Building 490
Upton, NY 11973
73
Human Radiation Experiments: Th e DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Re cord s
Hanford Sites
The Sites Today
The Hanford reservation occupies 560 square
miles in southeastern Washington state. More
than 18,000 people work at Hanford, and the site
has an annual budget of more than $1 billion. The
DOE Richland Operations Office oversees sev-
eral major contractors at Hanford: The Westing-
house Hanford Company provides operations and
engineering services, the Hanford Environmental
Health Foundation supplies occupational health
services, and ICF Kaiser Hanford Company pro-
vides architect-engineer and construction ser-
vices. Bechtel Hanford, Inc., is the site environ-
mental remediation contractor. Waste manage-
ment and environmental restoration are now the
largest part of the site’s activities.
Battelle Memorial Institute manages Pacific North-
west Laboratory (PNL), a DOE multiprogram Na-
tional Laboratory. PNL employs more than 4,800
people, has an annual budget of over $500 mil-
lion, and supports energy, environmental, educa-
tional, and national security missions.
Formerly a remote agricultural area ,
Hanford accommodated 50,000 people at
the height of construction.
Site History
Manhattan Project officials selected the Hanford
reservation in 1943 for the production of pluto-
nium. This required the construction of nuclear
reactors (“piles”), plutonium separation facilities
(“canyons”), fuel fabrication plants, and many as-
sociated facilities, including those required to
house thousands of war workers. The site offered
abundant water from the Columbia River, electri-
cal power, and isolation. Consistent with the Man-
hattan Project’s practice of employing private in-
dustry to construct and operate the atomic bomb
development complex, E.l. du Pont de Nemours
and Company constructed and operated the facil-
ity. Building began in 1943 and within 2 years an
enormous complex was in place. Formerly a re-
mote agricultural area, Hanford accommodated
50,000 people at the height of construction.
Waste management and environmental
restoration are now the largest part of the
site ’s activities.
Late in 1942, the MED viewed the reactor pro-
cess as promising for production of fissionable
material. In December, Enrico Fermi and his col-
leagues at the University of Chicago Metallurgi-
cal Laboratory achieved the first sustained nu-
clear chain reaction with a stacked pile of graph-
ite and uranium. It was understood that large-
scale production would generate extensive heat,
radioactivity, and toxic chemical waste. In part
because of these hazards, a pilot production re-
actor was built at Oak Ridge rather than the
more populated Chicago site. Du Pont’s con-
struction of the pilot, known as the X-10 reac-
tor, began in early 1943.
Even before construction began on the X-10 re-
actor, the Government decided to locate full-
scale production at a place even more remote
Figure 21 . A facility at Hanford for treating persons injured by em-
bedded radioactive particles (circa 1967). In this shielded operating
cell, a mock patient is flanked by a surgeon {right) and a radiation
monitor (left).
74
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Hanford Sites
than Oak Ridge: Hanford. Pressing to meet tight
deadlines, du Pont was directed to begin work on
the full-scale production facilities, known as the
Hanford Engineering Works. By the end of 1944,
the first Hanford reactor, the B reactor, began
operating. Chemical separation plants needed to
extract plutonium from irradiated slugs were fin-
ished shortly afterward, and the site was opera-
tionally complete by early 1945. In a few months,
Hanford had produced the plutonium for both
the Alamagordo test device and the Nagasaki
bomb.
During the war, du Pont established its own clin-
ical and occupational medical programs, with the
Manhattan Project Medical Section exercising
only general supervision. In addition, du Pont
conducted various kinds of research and devel-
opment at Hanford. Substantial work went into
programs to develop effective means of moni-
toring personnel for radiation exposure. This
included the development of personnel dosime-
try indicators (film badges, for example) and
methods to interpret indicator data. Because
operation of its facilities caused substantial ra-
dioactive emissions, Hanford also worked on
stack and environmental monitoring programs.
Environmental monitoring focused on the site
environs, including the Columbia River.
It was understood that large-scale pluto-
nium production would generate exten-
sive heat, radioactivity, and toxic chemi-
cal waste.
After the war du Pont did not continue as prime
Hanford contractor; General Electric acquired
the managing and operating contract in 1 946 and
assumed responsibility for producing plutonium.
The site also conducted a variety of research
projects. Hanford Laboratories conducted re-
search on the biological effects of radioactive
material, using animals as experimental subjects.
The laboratories also studied the effects of ra-
dioiodine, which was emitted as a waste product
from the chemical separation process.
In 1949, Hanford initiated a tissue sampling pro-
gram to analyze the deposition of plutonium in
humans. Bone, liver, and lung tissue were ob-
tained during autopsies and studied to learn the
amount, origin, and effect of resident plutonium.
This sampling program grew into the current U.S.
Transuranium Registry, now administered by
Washington State University. The registry studies
the distribution, concentration, and retention of
transuranic elements (elements heavier than ura-
nium) in deceased workers with occupational plu-
tonium exposures; participation is voluntary. Dur-
ing the early 1 950s, Hanford conducted innova-
tive inhalation toxicology studies and was the first
to demonstrate the production of a lung tumor
by plutonium in animal studies.
In December 1949, about 8,000 curies of
radioactive iodine and about 20,000 cu-
ries of radioactive xenon were intention-
ally released from a separation plant
stack.
Nuclear weapons production releases and weap-
ons testing raised biomedical questions and stim-
ulated additional research at Hanford. In 1959,
Hanford began feeding strontium-90 to minia-
ture swine and pygmy goats to study biological
effects. Other studies focused on fetal and juve-
nile mammal metabolism and the effects of tri-
tium on biological systems. This and related
work led to the establishment of a
radiotoxicology center and an ecology group at
Pacific Northwest Laboratory during the 1 960s.
Hanford also used these and related organiza-
tions to study the fate of radionuclides in the
environment.
In December 1949, about 8,000 curies of radio-
active iodine and about 20,000 curies of radioac-
tive xenon were intentionally released from a
separation plant stack. The rationale for the re-
lease, undertaken shortly after the first Soviet
atomic bomb test and known as the Green Run
for its use of highly radioactive “green” fuel, was
to obtain information for monitoring Soviet nu-
clear activities. (For more on this event and
other Hanford intentional releases, see the nar-
rative on Environmental Releases of Radiation,
later in this chapter). Apart from the Green Run,
radioactivity was routinely released into the en-
vironment as a by-product of processing activi-
ties. Filters and other emission reduction devices
were installed during the late 1940s and early
75
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
1950s, resulting in a marked decline in radioac-
tive emissions from the site.
Hanford production facilities expanded from
1 947 to 1 953 to meet Cold War demands for
more nuclear weapons. In the immediate post-
war period, General Electric built five new pro-
duction reactors at the site. Ultimately, nine pro-
duction reactors were built along the Columbia
River. During the 1960s, as the U.S. nuclear ar-
senal grew to formidable levels and the atmo-
spheric test-ban treaty limited weapons testing,
six of the Hanford reactors were closed. To
promote civilian nuclear power and to help meet
plutonium production needs, the AEC built the
Hanford N Reactor to produce both plutonium
and electricity.
The AEC took other initiatives to promote diver-
sification at Hanford. In 1964, hoping to establish
an economic base less dependent on weapons-
related activities, the agency committed to use
multiple contractors at the site. Battelle Memorial
Institute of Columbus, OH, was one of the first
contractors selected. In 1 965, Battelle contracted
to run the Hanford Laboratories, newly desig-
nated as Pacific Northwest Laboratory. PNL soon
began a design study for the Fast Flux Test Facility
(FFTF) to test fuels and materials considered for
use in fast breeder power reactors. Construction
of the FFTF at Hanford began in 1970 and took
1 2 years to complete.
All of Hanford’s production reactors and pro-
cessing canyons have been shut down; today,
most of the site’s resources are devoted to man-
aging the environmental legacy left by decades of
plutonium production. The potential health con-
sequences associated with the operation of the
complex remains a serious concern among many
who live, or have lived, near the site. As a result,
Hanford is currently involved in several health-
related activities, including:
• Hanford Environmental Dose Reconstruc-
tion Project (HEDR) — The U.S. Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, National
Center for Environmental Health (NCEH),
manages this study. The goal is to estimate
the radiation doses from Hanford emissions
to offsite populations. An independent Tech-
nical Steering Panel of scientists and public
representatives directs the objectives and
methodology of this study.
• Hanford Thyroid Disease Study — NCEH
also manages this study, with the assistance
of the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research
Center. The study’s purpose is to determine
the risk of thyroid disease among persons
who were exposed to radioactive air emis-
sions from the Hanford site between 1944
and 1957.
• Hanford Health Information Network —
Washington, Oregon, and Idaho state health
agencies sponsor this project in collabora-
tion with nine Indian nations. The Network
distributes information about the known and
potential health effects of exposure to radia-
tion released from Hanford from 1944 to
1972. There are information and service
centers in each state, a Tribal Service Pro-
gram, and a resource center serving those
who have moved from the region. The pro-
ject operates a toll-free Hanford Health In-
formation Line, connects people with refer-
ral resources, and is establishing a Hanford
Health Information Archives to gather and
preserve individual health histories and ex-
periences.
All of Hanford’s production reactors and
processing canyons have been shut down;
today , most of the site’s resources are de-
voted to managing the environmental leg-
acy left by decades of plutonium produc-
tion.
Site Human Radiation Experiments
During the 1950s, human tritium absorption and
radioiron studies were conducted at Hanford.
The subjects of these experiments included site
employees and medical patients. The contro-
versy over nuclear fallout also stimulated work
at Hanford, including studies of radionuclide me-
tabolism and radiation health effects. Examples
include research involving employee ingestion of
iodine-131 in cow’s milk. During the early 1960s,
two employee volunteers were exposed to
iodine- 131 for measuring doses received
through the air.
76
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Hanford Sites
Site Records Collections
The Hanford sites are complex and present a
formidable records challenge. Diversification of
operations has resulted in records in the cus-
tody of several different organizations. The
Richland Operations Office has custody of many
records kept by the site’s Federal managers un-
der the MED, AEC, ERDA, and DOE. In addi-
tion, the Operations Office has custody of du
Pont, General Electric, and Hanford Environ-
mental Health Foundation records.
Figure 22. A Richland, WA, child participating in a program to
measure radiation typically present in the body. This 1960s project
took place at Pacific Northwest Laboratory.
The Operations Office now controls its records
through a box-level electronic database (known
as the Records Holding Area Management Infor-
mation System, or MIS). While this system is po-
tentially useful for research, it does not use the
records series concept. Thus, in contrast to the
situation at most DOE sites, identifying bodies of
records associated with specific functions or or-
ganizations is difficult. Reconstructing records
series by using MIS is possible, but the volume of
material and the generality of the descriptions
complicates this task. The series descriptions
listed below represent an effort by OH RE staff
to reconstruct collections of records with the
most value for studying human radiation experi-
ments. Researchers may wish to use these de-
scriptions in conjunction with MIS. OHRE will
continue working with the Operations Office to
improve series-level control.
The Hanford sites are complex and pres
ent a formidable records challenge.
Pacific Northwest Laboratory has custody of its
own records and the records of its predecessor,
General Electric. PNL has some intellectual con-
trol over its records, and identification of series
is easier than for the Operations Office records.
Hanford organizations are not accustomed to
providing archival reference services, and the
records controls that are in place were designed
to meet internal needs. Improving access to all
site records, including those currently in
Hanford custody, is a goal of this project.
77
H uman Radiation Exp eriments: The DOE Roadmap to the St o ry and the Records
Richland Operations Office
SERIES TITLE Chief Counsel Office, Classified Correspondence Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 947-1 955; 1 965-1 971
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION The series was compiled to document activities of the Office of Chief Counsel. It
includes documents regarding patent declassification and application for classified
subjects, reactor inspection records, contracts with special contractors, monthly
reports of the Chief Counsel’s Office activities, and a contract negotiation and proce-
dure manual. It contains file of correspondence regarding special claims for injury
from radiation exposure. The series consists of legal memorandums, contracts,
memos, letters, reports, and applications. A box index is available. Box number
001772.
RESTRICTIONS This series is entirely classified.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Hanford Records Holding Area
715 Swift Blvd.
Richland, WA 99352
SERIES TITLE Chief Counsel Office, Classified General Administrative Files
-
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 946-1 963
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 4 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series was compiled as part of a central filing system for basic reference materi-
als. It includes files on contracts, monthly reports of Office of Chief Counsel activities;
reactor inspection reports; patent applications; special claims for injury; declassifica-
tion procedures; photographs of the sites and facilities; Richland site selection criteria;
and reports of activities at other sites. Box B00491 contains records of special claims
made against Hanford for injury due to irradiation. The series includes reports, photos,
negatives, memorandums, letters, press releases, manuals, and applications. A box
index is available. Box numbers B00491, 041223, 008715, 002488.
RESTRICTIONS This series is entirely classified.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Hanford Records Holding Area
715 Swift Blvd.
Richland, WA 99352
78
Chapter 2. Nar ratives and Records Series — In sti tut io nal Areas: Han f ord Site s (R i c h I and Operatio ns O ffi ce)
SERIES TITLE Chief Counsel Office, Litigation/Radiation Claims Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 957-1 983
ARRANGEMENT Litigation subject
VOLUME 20 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents the litigation activities of the Office of Chief Counsel. It con-
tains various litigation case files and materials on radiation claims against contractors,
Workmen’s Compensation cases, transcripts of public hearings, and investigative
case reports. The series contains letters, memorandums, reports, legal documents,
working papers, interrogatories, and charts. A box index is available. Box numbers
024757, 072689, 072709, 072909, 072943, 072910, 072945, 072949, 079007,
079307, 079308, 079403, 079405, 079406, 079440, 103076, 103077, 103080,
103081, 103082.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Hanford Records Holding Area
712 Swift Blvd.
Richland, WA 99352
SERIES TITLE Chief Counsel Office, Unclassified Correspondence
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 943-1 973
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 9 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents the activities of legal counsel in advising Hanford Facility
management on law, legal policy, and contract interpretation. It includes material on
General Electric activities, patent matters, personnel clearance matters, the Manhat-
tan District History, community management, the hospitals, leases, and land disposal.
The series consists of graphs, charts, correspondence, court transcripts, hearing
exhibits, trial preparation documents, police reports, and leases. A box index is avail-
able. Box numbers 001768, 002464, 002845, 002970, 003425, 007218, 029235,
030733, 079006.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Hanford Records Holding Area
715 Swift Blvd.
Richland, WA 99352
79
Human Radiation Experiments: The DO E R oadmap to the S to ry a n d the Records
SERIES TITLE General Electric , Contractor Research and Technical Notebooks
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 952-1 962
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 42 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents GE experiments and research initiatives. In particular the
series contains information on animal research, plant study, radiological study, aquatic
biology, chemistry, electrochemistry research on plutonium, environmental research,
and other projects. The series contains laboratory notebooks used to record data,
observations, and notes. A box index is available. Box numbers (G)67573, 67574,
67604, 67605, 68379, 84029, 84030, 84031 , 84584, 84587, 84588, 84589, 84590,
84591, 84592, 84593, 84703, 84704, 85157, 85158, 85159, 85160, 85478, 85479,
85480, 85481, 85488, 85491, 85492, 85493, 85537, 85541, 85542, 85543, 85544,
85545, 85546, 85547, 85553, 85554, 85559, 85596.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Records Holding Area
715 Swift Blvd.
Richland, WA 99352
SERIES TITLE Hanford Engineer Works , Project Historical Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 943-1 947
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION The series documents the early history of the Manhattan District, particularly the
Hanford Piles Project. It includes the diaries of Col. F. T. Matthias, the Manhattan
District history book, and the Hanford Engineering Works project history. The Matthais
diaries contain information related to meetings with D. Cooksey and Dr. Joseph
Hamilton of the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory. The series consists of correspon-
dence, manuscript drafts, descriptions of experiments, photographs, project comple-
tion reports, and military diaries of day to day operations. A box index is available. Box
number C00309.
LOCATION OF Records Holding Area
RECORDS 715 Swift Blvd.
Richland, WA 99352
80
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Hanford Sites (Richland Operations Office )
SERIES TITLE Personnel Division, Classified General Administrative Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 943-1 976
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 2 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents the general administrative activities of the personnel division.
It includes reference materials, annual reports, organizational charts for specific
contractors and reactor operations, and studies of plant operations. It also contains
reports on Richland diversification plans and summaries of plant operations. The
series consist of organizational charts, studies, reports, graphs, letters, memoran-
dums, and technical data. A box index is available. Box numbers 046073, C00327.
RESTRICTIONS This series is entirely classified.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Records Holding Area
715 Swift Blvd.
Richland, WA 99352
SERIES TITLE Plans & Budget Division, Classified Report Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 943-1 961
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 11 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series documents the entire range of operations office activities. It includes
Construction Engineering Operation monthly reports, Hanford Works monthly reports,
manager’s data books, du Pont monthly reports, and Hanford management books.
Many reports include sections on medical division, health instruments, and biology
division activities. The manager’s data books include sections on personal injury
claims, accidental and occupational fatalities, as well as organization charts. Box
003094 contains important histories of early Hanford medical programs. The series
consists of formal reports and data books. A box index is available. Box numbers
B00213, B00670, B00672, B00674, 001603, 002061, 002436, 002437, 002815,
003094, 001604.
RESTRICTIONS This series is entirely classified.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Records Holding Area
715 Swift Blvd.
Richland, WA 99352
81
Human R adiation E xperiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Procurement Division Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 965-1 991
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 22 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents oversight of contract negotiations and patent clearances at
Hanford by the Contract Administration Division, earlier called the Contract and Pro-
curement Division. It includes information of the Westinghouse Hanford, Hanford
Environmental Health Foundation, General Electric, University of Arkansas, University
of Oregon, Flow Research Inc., Pacific Northwest Laboratories, and Battelle North-
west contracts, as well as, patent clearance requests. The series consists of memo-
randums, letters, and requests for patent clearances with supporting drawings and
articles, contracts, authorization letters, policies and procedures, and technical re-
ports. A box index is available. Box numbers 027205, 027252, 027254, 027255,
041242, 043046, 043051, 066889, 079080, 079446, 085597, 085599, 085600,
085651, 085731, 085859, 085862, 094630, 115477, 038169, 040963, 038170.
LOCATION OF Records Holding Area
RECORDS 715 Swift Blvd.
Richland, WA 99352
SERIES TITLE Procurement Division, Ronald E. Cone, Chief Acquisition & Financial
Branch, Contracts & Correspondence Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 963-1 969
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 3 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents the functions and responsibilities for the contract manager
branch. It includes contracts and correspondence pertaining to contracts, USGS
Bureau of reclamation (Yakima) central warehouse upgrades, Bonneville Power
Administration contracts, environmental studies, Richland audit reports, and AEC
policies for operating contracts. The series consists of invoices, meeting notes, con-
tracts, letters, memorandums, architectural drawings, floor plans, and published
material. A box index is available. Box numbers 103205, 103209, 103214.
LOCATION OF Records Holding Area
RECORDS 715 Swift Blvd.
Richland, WA 99352
82
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series-— Institutional Areas: Hanford Sites (Richland Operations Office)
SERIES TITLE Production & Waste Management Division , Classified Correspondence Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 943-1 973
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 49 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents operations office oversight of production reactor operations.
It includes documentation on reactor operating problems such as graphite expansion,
cost of operations, plutonium production, reactor safety, reactor waste, chemical
processing activities, and cost analyses of production reactor shutdown. It contains
files on accidental exposure and cancer treatment, Columbia River pollution, Building
234 design, faliout data collection, heavy water production, and Rala production at
Richland and Los Alamos. The cancer treatment file is a Medicine Health and Safety
(MH&S) 3-8 Special Case file that includes correspondence about the treatment of
cancer patients using the Richland whole body counter. The series consists of letters,
memorandums, reports, TWXs, charts, graphs, handwritten notes, and meeting
minutes. The records are arranged according to several subject filing systems, one
of which is the AEC numeric filing system. A box index is available. Box numbers
A00601 , A00739, B00125, C00361, 001418, 001607, 002421, 002461, 002876,
003085, 007532, 007541, 007545, 008748, 008751, 008784, 009920, 010478,
015200, 015202, 015203, 015204, 015227, 015237, 015270, 016211, 016250,
022746, 022749, 024721, 024722, 027216, 027256, 027260, 028732, 028766,
029363, 030750, 030751, 030755, 030758, 030760, 033273, 038287, 039230,
039231, 039270, 046093, 046220.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Records Holding Area
715 Swift Blvd.
Richland, WA 99352
83
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Production & Waste Management Division ,
Unclassified Correspondence Files
t
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 958-1 973
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 11 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series documents the activities of the Hanford Chemical Processing Department
which produced various chemical and physical forms of plutonium, manufactured
weapons components, and produced various isotopes. It includes materials on envi-
ronmental impact statements, US AEC Material Status Reports, loan of materials to
institutions, nuclear material transfers, leasing policies, waste management practices.
Within the series there is a sub-series regarding grants and loans of plutonium which
was overseen by P.A. Craig, Supply Coordinator. The series consists of letters, mem-
orandums, reports, completed forms, and photographs. A box index is available. Box
numbers 018776, 028710, 033286, 033287, 033297, 066594, 079168, 079169,
079172, 079401, 085618.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Records Holding Area
715 Swift Blvd.
Richland, WA 99352
SERIES TITLE Research & Development Division , Classified Projects,
Correspondence Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 958-1 976
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 3 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents various projects and studies of the Research and Develop-
ment Division. It includes studies on the effects of the nuclear facilities on the Colum-
bia River, waste disposal by the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
earthquakes, and chemical discharges into the river. It also includes reports on iso-
tope production, and studies on Hanford diversification. The series consists of letters,
memorandums, reports, technical data, meeting minutes, and technical reports. A box
index is available. Box numbers 009042, 017264, 039235.
RESTRICTIONS This series is entirely classified.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Records Holding Area
715 Swift Blvd.
Richland, WA 99352
84
Ch a pter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Hanford Sites (Richland Operations Office)
SERIES TITLE Research & Development Division, Unclassified Correspondence Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 958-1 982
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 7.8 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents the division’s major responsibilities and activities. Documenta-
tion was compiled as part of the division’s investigation of site environmental prob-
lems. The series includes material on environmental research and activities, special
research studies, and activities which the division oversaw, such as the transfer of
control of activities among site contractors. It also contains documentation on thermal
effects studies and of the effect of reactor operations on the Columbia River. The
series contains memorandums, letters, directives, proposals, scientific data, technical
notebooks, and reports. A box index is available. Box numbers 007400, 028738,
029361, 046088, 046111 , 046116, 072771, 079392.
LOCATION OF Records Holding Area
RECORDS 715 Swift Blvd.
Richland, WA 99352
SERIES TITLE Research Prisoner Study Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 963-1 976
ARRANGEMENT Project
VOLUME 1 .5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents the research project whereby prisoners in Oregon and Wash-
ington participated in testicular irradiation studies. It is a medical research project
case file reflecting the history of the project from initiation to completion. The series
consists of contracts, letters, memorandums, annual reports, publications, renewal
proposals, and consent forms. An electronic finding aid is available. Box number
046264.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Records Holding Area
715 Swift Blvd.
Richland, WA 99352
85
Human Radiation Experimen ts : The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Re cords
SERIES TITLE Safety & Environmental Protection Division, Administrative Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 957-1 98 1
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 4 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents the division’s activities and responsibilities. It includes material
on radioactive contaminants discharged to ground; radioactive liquid wastes, radiation
exposures (unintentional incidents, accidents, and occupational exposures); stack
emissions; air pollutant emissions reporting; discharges into, and sampling of, the
Columbia River; dosimetry management; employee safety and health complaints;
health and safety inspections; and emergency preparedness. It does not seem to
contain information on clinical experimentation but may have data on intentional
releases. The series consists of reports, photographs, memorandums, letters, maps,
charts, blueprints, phone conversation logs, stack emissions status reports, and
environmental impact statements. A box index is available. Box numbers 024284,
066842, 094557, 103015.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Records Holding Area
715 Swift Blvd.
Richland, WA 99352
86
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Hanford Environmental Health Foundation
Hanford Environmental Health Foundation
SERIES TITLE Administrative Correspondence Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 969-1 992
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION This series documents the administration of the foundation. It includes materials on
organizational activities, security and safeguards directives, files related to the con-
sent, use, and follow-up studies of diethylenetriamine penatacetic acid (DPT), United
Nuclear Corporation employee files documenting training and welfare programs, and
documentation on emergency medical services and emergency preparedness guide-
lines. The series consists of organizational reports, medical reports, letters, memoran-
dums, graphs, and charts. Box number 099501.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Hanford Records Holding Area
712 Swift Blvd.
Richland, WA 99352
SERIES TITLE Policies and Procedures Correspondence
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 964-1 971
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION This series documents foundation administration. It includes security appraisals and
correspondence; contracts; industrial safety and fire protection functional appraisals;
records management appraisals; occupational medicine appraisals; Environmental
Health Science (EHS) appraisals; Richland Operations Office appraisals. It also
contains a W. D. Norwood letter book, and medical director’s office and personal
correspondence. The series consists of letters, memorandums, reports, and note-
books. Box number 030247.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Hanford Records Holding Area
712 Swift Blvd.
Richland, WA 99352
87
H uman Radiat ion E xpe r iments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
Pacific Northwest Laboratory (PNL)
SERIES TITLE Director's Office Correspondence with AEC, ERDA, & DO E
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 965-present
ARRANGEMENT PNL Subject Filing System
VOLUME 6 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series documents the administration and management of the laboratory. It in-
cludes correspondence files between the PNL Director and the AEC, ERDA, and DOE
Richland General Management. The series consists of contracts and related docu-
mentation, letters, memorandums, and reports. An electronic finding aid is available.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Pacific Northwest Laboratory
Richland, WA 99352
SERIES TITLE Biology Department Records
INCLUSIVE DATES 1965-present
ARRANGEMENT PNL Subject Filing System
VOLUME 300 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series documents laboratory activities in the biological sciences. It includes some
studies begun by du Pont and General Electric, animal studies, active and inactive
administrative records, and project case files. The series consists of monthly, quar-
terly and annual reports, policies, procedures, letters, memorandums, publications,
and formal reports. An electronic finding aid is available. Box numbers (primarily)
098638, 098639, 028000-028002, 028005, 040449, 040458, 040459, 048569,
048571-048577, 113283-113290.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Pacific Northwest Laboratory
Richland, WA 99352
88
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Hanford Sites (Pacific Northwest Laboratory)
SERIES TITLE Biology Department Records, du Pont and General Electric
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 944-1 964
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 100 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series documents the biological and biomedical research activities of du Pont and
General Electric. It includes records of the Health Instruments Division, material on
the Green Run, and files on animal, fish, and vegetation studies. The series consists
of monthly, quarterly, and annual reports; policies; procedures; letters; memoran-
dums; Laboratory notebooks; publications; and formal reports. An electronic finding
aid is available. Box numbers (primarily) 069551-069556, 080573, 107734-107742,
113295, 065548-065557.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Pacific Northwest Laboratory
RECORDS Richland, WA 99352
SERIES TITLE Health Risk Assessment Department Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 965-1 994
ARRANGEMENT PNL Subject Filing System
VOLUME 100 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series consists of administrative and project records received or generated by the
department. The administrative records are maintained by organization and the re-
search records as project case files. The research records are primarily “paper”
studies of data collected by other organizations. The series consists of letters, memo-
randums, reports, computer printouts, and laboratory notebooks. An electronic finding
aid is available. Box numbers (primarily) 119430, 126610, 129400-129404, 129456,
129457, 124714-124720.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Pacific Northwest Laboratory
RECORDS Richland, WA 99352
89
Hu man Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the S tor y and the Records
SERIES TITLE Human Subjects Committee
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 965-1 994
ARRANGEMENT
VOLUME
Subject
13 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series documents laboratory research involving human subjects and is composed
of the human subject committee chairperson’s administrative files. It includes studies
identified by study number, documents on the approval process for each study, infor-
mation regarding study funding, and copies of minutes of meetings of PNL’s Human
Subjects Committee. The series consists of letters, memorandums, reports, and
meeting minutes. An electronic finding aid is available.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Pacific Northwest Laboratory
Richland, WA 99352
SERIES title Human Subjects Records Search, Retrieval Review and Release Project
INCLUSIVE DATES 1993-present
ARRANGEMENT Project Case File
VOLUME 15 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents the Human Subjects Records Search, Retrieval, Review &
Release Project. It includes master and redacted copies of documents pertinent to
human radiation experiments, documentation about record searches, and DOE-PNL
correspondence. It contains documentation on the following human radiation experi-
ments: a tritium study, the Walla Walla prisoner study, a promethium study, and
Hanford intentional releases of radiation. The series consists of notes, drafts, indexes,
finding aids, reference material, reports, articles, oral histories, letters, and memoran-
dums. An electronic finding aid is available.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Pacific Northwest Laboratory
Richland, WA 99352
90
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Hanford Sites (Pacific Northwest Laboratory)
SERIES TITLE Dietary & Body Burden Data & Dose Estimates
for Locai School Children & Teenagers
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 965-1 971
ARRANGEMENT By school and thereunder by name/number assigned to each person
VOLUME 27 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series was compiled to document a study of the influences of diet on radioactivity
in people and was conducted at schools in the Richland area. It includes material on
another study to analyze the amounts of certain foods consumed by local families and
schoolchildren. The series contains analyses of significant pathways through drinking
water, locally grown beef, river fish, and game birds, for radioactivity to reach the
body. The series consists of diet charts, whole body counter results, printouts, and
photos at local schools. A database is maintained of the documents in each box of
records. Box numbers (primarily) 027860-027875, 050200-050213.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Pacific Northwest Laboratory
Richland, WA 99352
SERIES TITLE Hanford Environmental Dose Reconstruction (HEDR) Project,
Administrative & Research Records, Tasks 0-12
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 987-1 994
ARRANGEMENT Project task
VOLUME 165 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents the projects’ efforts to develop estimates of radiation doses
that local populations received from nuclear operations at Hanford. It includes material
on project scope, organization, and administration; the development of computer and
other models for dose reconstruction; analyses of most hazardous radioisotopes and
their transport through the environment into the body; site environmental monitoring,
local food habits and life styles; and detailed information about types and amounts of
Hanford radiation releases. The series consists of computer software, memoran-
dums, letters, notes, charts, graphs, preliminary drafts, final reports, database files,
comments from the Technical Steering Panel in which panel members provided
direction to the project, minutes of meetings, and comments received from the public
concerning the research project. An electronic finding aid is available.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Pacific Northwest Laboratory
Richland, WA 99352
91
Human R adi at ion Exp eriments: The DOE Ro admap to the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Hanford Intentional Atmospheric Releases
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 944-1 963
ARRANGEMENT Document number
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION The series documents the intentional release of radiation to the environment at
Hanford. It includes planning and other documentation from the site Health Division,
materials on the Green Run, and documentation about the 1962 and 1963 intentional
releases. These records were used by the Hanford Environmental Dose Reconstruc-
tion (HEDR) Project. The series consists of formal reports, quarterly reports, monthly
reports, and prerelease planning documents. An electronic finding aid is available.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Pacific Northwest Laboratory
Richland, WA 99352
SERIES TITLE Records on the Irradiation Effects in the Human Testis
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 963-1 970
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION This series documents the Study of Irradiation Effects in the Human Testis (also
known as the Walla Walla Prisoner Study). It contains documentation on General
Electric’s and PNL’s technical assistance in the study which was conducted by the
University of Washington. The series consists of laboratory notebooks, drawings,
sketches, letters, memorandums, photographs, reports, copies of journal articles, and
blank consent forms. An electronic finding aid is available. Box number 094367.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Pacific Northwest Laboratory
Richland, WA 99352
92
Chapter 2. Narrat iv es and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Hanford Sites (Pacific Northwest Laboratory)
SERIES TITLE Transcripts/Reference Material for “ Radioactivity & Health: A History ”
by Joseph Newell Stannard
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 944-1 986
ARRANGEMENT Interviewee
Document title
Subject; and/or National Laboratory
VOLUME 22 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series was compiled by Stannard in the preparation of “Radioactivity and Health:
A History,” a work on the history of radioactivity from before World War II to the
1970s. It includes information on human subjects experiments and on animal studies
at sites throughout the United States. The series consists of donated documents,
reports, articles, tapes of oral history interviews, and transcripts of oral history inter-
views. An electronic index is available.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Pacific Northwest Laboratory
RECORDS Richland, WA 99352
SERIES title Historical Collection of Hanford Documents
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 944-1 965
ARRANGEMENT Document
Number
VOLUME 200 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series documents radiation protection, monitoring, and release activities at
Hanford. It includes documents pertaining to research projects, radiation protection,
and radiation monitoring at the Hanford Site from the Manhattan Engineer District
through 1965, the Green Run, and other intentional releases. The series consists of
letters, memorandums, formal reports, internal reports, organizational charts, labora-
tory notebooks, and finding aids, such as handwritten document number issue books
and a card catalogue for documents issued between 1944 and 1964. The majority of
these documents have been reviewed for relevancy to the Hanford Environmental
Dose Reconstruction Project and applicable documents were declassified (or declas-
sified with deletions) for use by that project.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and a small amount of classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Pacific Northwest Laboratory
Richland, WA 99352
93
Human Radiation Experiments: Th e DOE R oadmap to the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Classified Laboratory Record Books
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 965-1 994
ARRANGEMENT
VOLUME
Numerical
50 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series documents classified scientific and technical research of the Laboratory.
The record books are used to record observations/data chronologically, describe
(narrative or sketch) experimental apparatus, equipment, and any procedures, data
sheets, etc., that are used. The series consists entirely of Laboratory record books.
An electronic finding aid is available.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Pacific Northwest Laboratory
Richland, WA 99352
SERIES TITLE Unclassified Laboratory Record Books
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 965-1 994
ARRANGEMENT Numerical
VOLUME 450 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series documents biomedical, scientific, and other research of the Laboratory.
The record books are used to record observations/data chronologically, describe
(narrative or sketch) experimental apparatus, equipment, and any procedures, data
sheets, etc., that are used. The series consists entirely of Laboratory record books.
An electronic finding aid is available.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Pacific Northwest Laboratory
Richland, WA 99352
94
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Idaho Sites
The Sites Today
The Idaho sites consist of three major facilities
on 890 square miles in southeastern Idaho,
about 50 miles west of Idaho Falls. The Idaho
National Engineering Laboratory (INEL) is a
multiprogram laboratory whose mission focuses
upon advanced energy and environment engi-
neering technology. A Naval Reactors Facility
functions as a proving ground for prototype na-
val propulsion reactors. The Argonne National
Laboratory West Facility (ANL-W) is a test area
for Argonne National Laboratory experimental
reactors. With I 1,000 employees and a $1 bil-
lion annual budget, the facilities together repre-
sent Idaho’s second-largest employer. The
Atomic Energy Commission originally estab-
lished the site as a nuclear reactor proving
ground, and 52 reactors of many different design
types have been built there. As of October
1994, seven reactors were operating or in
standby condition.
Fifty-two reactors of many different de-
sign types have been built at Idaho.
Three DOE offices each manage a portion of the
Idaho complex. The Idaho Operations Office
oversees INEL activities, the Idaho Branch Office
of Pittsburgh Naval Reactors directs the Naval
Reactors Facility, and the Chicago Operations
Office oversees ANL-W. DOE recently awarded
a 5-year management contract to Lockheed
Idaho Technologies Company to operate INEL.
The Westinghouse Electric Corporation oper-
ates the Naval Reactors Facility, and the Univer-
sity of Chicago runs ANL-W. Site focus has
shifted from reactor development to manage-
ment of radioactive waste, storage of spent nu-
clear fuel, remediation activities, environmental
restoration, technology transfer, and research
and development activities.
Site History
The Idaho National Engineering Laboratory
(INEL ) — In need of a remote site to work with
experimental civilian and military reactors, the
AEC in 1949 created a National Reactor Testing
Station at a former U.S. Navy gun testing range
in Idaho. The first reactor built at the site was
the Experimental Breeder Reactor (EBR-1). In
1951, EBR-1 became the first nuclear reactor to
produce electricity from nuclear fission. The
main purpose for the reactor, however, was to
show the feasibility of "breeding,” or creating
additional nuclear fuel during routine reactor
operation. The AEC then anticipated shortages
of the uranium ore needed for reactor fuel.
EBR-1 demonstrated the first breeding of nu-
clear fuel in June 1953. During the 1950s, the
AEC built a series of experimental reactors at
INEL, including five Boiling Water Reactor Ex-
periment (BORAX) reactors. These reactors
generated power by running a turbine on steam
directly generated in the reactor. The BORAX-1
reactor was built in 1 953 to examine the behav-
ior of boiling-water reactors during abnormal
changes in power and temperature. During
1954, most of the fuel plates in the reactor core
were melted during an experiment. Another
BORAX reactor, BORAX-III, became the first
reactor to light an American town when it pro-
vided electricity for Arco, Idaho in 1 955. The
BORAX reactors laid the groundwork for the
commercialization of boiling-water power reac-
tors.
As the AEC began to encourage the creation of
a commercial nuclear power industry after 1955,
it conducted reactor research programs to
gather data to confirm its assumption that reac-
tors could safely generate electricity. At the
time, scientists were concerned that a runaway
nuclear chain reaction (excursion) would be the
most likely cause of a serious reactor accident.
The AEC built four reactors at INEL to carry
out the Special Power Excursion Reactor Tests
(SPERT). The tests pushed reactors to extreme
limits, including intentionally destructive tests in
which planned nuclear excursions were allowed
to damage reactor cores. These tests released
limited amounts of radioactive materials to the
environment. SPERT program data contributed
to the development of procedures to prevent
reactor excursions. The last SPERT reactor
(SPERT IV) was shut down in 1970.
95
Human Radiation Experiments: The DO E Roadmap to the Story an d the Records
The longest-lived IN EL reactor project was the
Loss of Fluid Test Facility (LOFT). Started in the
early 1960s, the LOFT project originally in-
tended to force a fuel meltdown to test reactor
core performance. In 1967, AEC changed the
purpose of the project to test reactor emer-
gency core-cooling systems. In conjunction with
the revised LOFT project, INEL conducted the
“semiscale” tests in 1970. The semiscale appara-
tus consisted of a small reactor mockup
equipped with an emergency core-cooling sys-
tem. Tests suggested that water in the emer-
gency core-cooling system did not circulate as
designed. Critics argued that the test proved
that emergency cooling systems would not work
and that commercial reactors were at risk of
releasing catastrophic amounts of radioactivity
to the environment. The semiscale tests were a
key event in the U.S. debate over the safety of
commercial nuclear power plants. LOFT was
shut down in 1986.
Figure 23. Measuring intentional radiation release at the Idaho
experimental dairy farm (1964).
INEL also operated experimental military reac
tors. During the early 1950s, the U.S. Air Force
tested nuclear propulsion systems. This effort
was part of the Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion pro-
gram, which aimed to develop a reactor small
enough to be mounted in an airplane. Three re-
actor assemblies, designated as the Heat Trans-
fer Reactor Experiments (HTRE), were used to
evaluate reactor control systems, test advanced
fuels and moderators, and assess the feasibility of
a nuclear-powered aircraft. The aircraft reactor
program was canceled in 1961.
The Idaho Operations Office now man-
ages the Radioactive Waste Management
Complex , which examines , sorts, pro-
cesses, and stores transuranic waste and
low-level waste.
The U.S. Army, too, built experimental reactors
at INEL. One such reactor, the Stationary Low-
Power Reactor No. I (SL— 1 ), was a portable re-
actor for use in providing power in remote ar-
eas. The SL— 1 suffered a catastrophic power ex-
cursion in 1961, killing three technicians.
The AEC built the Idaho Chemical Processing
Plant (ICPP) at INEL to recover enriched ura-
nium for use as nuclear fuel. The ICPP was origi-
nally designed in the early 1950s as a 5-year
demonstration facility. It quickly became the
principal facility for receiving, storing, reprocess-
ing, and managing nuclear materials from reac-
tors in the U.S. and other countries. The ICPP
also operated facilities to manage high-level ra-
dioactive wastes. The waste calcining facilities
have been used to convert liquid radioactive
wastes into a solid granular form for storage.
Since 1963, the ICPP has converted more than
six million gallons of high-level radioactive liquid
waste to granular solid form.
The Idaho Operations Office now manages the
Radioactive Waste Management Complex, which
examines, sorts, processes, and stores trans-
uranic waste and low-level waste. The complex
consists of a 97-acre subsurface disposal area
and a 57-acre transuranic storage area.
The Naval Reactors Facility — Experimental re-
actors for the Navy were also built at the Idaho
site, but the Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program,
a joint AEC-Navy program, maintained its own
96
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Idaho Sites
oversight over the reactors and operated them
with its own contractors. The Naval Reactors
Facility was built in the early 1950s and has
tested prototype reactors for submarines and
surface ships. The first prototype Naval reactor
was produced to help design the reactor for the
first nuclear submarine, the U.S.S. Nautilus,
which was launched in 1955. In 1958 two proto-
type Naval reactors were constructed in design-
ing the first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, the
U.S.S. Enterprise, which went to sea in 1 96 1 . In
1965, a third prototype facility, S5G, was built to
study enhanced reactor safety and allow quieter
submarine operation.
The Argonne National Laboratory West facil-
ity — The ANL-W opened in 1964. It is operated
as an adjunct to Argonne National Laboratory.
This facility houses several experimental reac-
tors and other laboratory facilities. The chief
focus has been liquid metal-cooled reactors,
safety studies, and reactor core designs. Reac-
tors built at the facility include the Experimental
Breeder Reactor II and the Zero Power Pluto-
nium Reactor.
Site Human Radiation Experiments
Two human radiation experiments have been
identified that were performed by the Idaho Op-
erations Office Health and Safety Division (known
originally as the Health Services Laboratory). Sev-
eral other experiments involving intentional re-
leases of radioactivity to the environment were
also conducted at INEL. Various groups spon-
sored these tests, including the AEC and its con-
tractors, and other Federal organizations.
Two human radiation experiments have
been identified that were performed by the
Idaho Operations Office Health and
Safety Division.
The first human radiation experiment was the
Controlled Environmental Radioiodine Tests
(CERT), which were designed to develop models
for predicting the movement of radioiodine
through the milk-to-human food chain (Figure
26). During these tests, known amounts of
iodine- 1 3 I were released into the environment
on 23 occasions from 1963 to 1968. From 1963
to 1966, some human volunteers inhaled air and
ingested milk containing radioiodine to obtain
data on the transport of radioiodine to and
through the body. The purpose of this program,
which was part of the AEC’s investigation of fall-
out effects, was to develop mathematical models
for predicting the movement of radioiodine
through the food chain to man.
Figure 24. A mobile whole body counter (1966).
The second human radiation experiment in-
volved administration of radioactive material to
subjects for testing and calibrating whole body
radiation counters. These tests took place from
1 965 to 1 972 and involved about 1 8 AEC em-
ployees as subjects. The subjects swallowed plas-
tic capsules containing radioactive material, or
inhaled radioactive noble gases. Whole body
counting equipment was then used to measure
and trace the isotopes.
Experiments involving intentional radiation re-
leases to the environment also included tests as-
sociated with reactor development and safety,
burning of contaminated solvents, and diffusion of
gases. These experiments took place from 1 955
to 1977. None of these releases involved deliber-
ate exposure of human subjects to radiation.
97
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Sto ry and the Records
Some tests did, however, result in movement of
airborne radioactive material offsite. Individual site
experiments are discussed in Chapter 3.
Site Records Collections
IN EL has custody of records dating from the be-
ginning of the site in 1949. Many inactive records
are stored at the Federal Records Center in Seat-
tle but some are maintained onsite. Most inactive
records onsite are kept at the Central Facilities
Area. IN EL has custody of the records created by
the site managing contractors and by the Idaho
Operations Office of the AEC, ERDA, and DOE.
Some important records are in the custody of the
Radiological and Environmental Sciences Labora-
tory of IN EL. Records created by the Naval reac-
tors program and by ANL-W are controlled by
these respective organizations. Some records are
stored at sites in Idaho Falls, at the Idaho Falls
Center for Higher Education (University Place),
and at the Willow Creek Building of Lockland
Idaho Technologies Company.
INEL has records transfer sheets that contain
some information about the contents of individ-
ual boxes of inactive records. This information is
maintained in hard copy and on the computer-
ized Automated Document System (ADOCS),
which has a limited search capability. Because
records holding information is maintained on a
box-by-box basis, similar to the system used at
Hanford, records series have to be recon-
structed. These series descriptions represent a
joint effort by Idaho and OH RE to reconstruct
and describe the most important collections.
Information in these series covers the full
range of human experimentation done at
Idaho.
Information in these series covers the full range
of human experimentation done at Idaho. There
is also a small amount of material on environ-
mental releases that were not designed to test
the health effects of radiation or the effect of
human exposure to radiation. While these re-
leases are beyond the scope of the definition of
human experimentation, they were identified
during the search. Specifically included are some
records associated with the INEL Historical
Dose Evaluation which studied radiation dose
levels associated with releases and accidents.
98
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Idaho Sites
Idaho National Engineering Laboratory (INEL)
SERIES TITLE Chief Counsel Office Subject Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 949-present
ARRANGEMENT Subject Filing Code
Alphabetical by subject (in parts)
VOLUME 60 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents the full range of legal activities carried out at the Idaho site.
The records cover a variety of topics including, among others, grazing claims and
land acquisition files; radiation claims; information on the hazards of low-level radia-
tion; contractor proposals; AEC correspondence; and waste disposal. The records
include memorandums, correspondence, reports, legal documents and exhibits,
publications, and conference and symposium materials. Three boxes from this
series have been transferred into the custody of the National Archives Branch in
Seattle.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
INEL, Central Facilities Area (CFA)
Building CFA-674 E
Idaho Falls, ID 83401
Federal Records Center and National Archives
Seattle, WA 98115
SERIES TITLE Personnel Medical Records
INCLUSIVE DATES 1947-present
ARRANGEMENT Alphabetical
VOLUME 915 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series consists of the medical records of each past and present employee of the
Idaho National Engineering Laboratory. The records have been microfilmed and the
hard copies sent to the Federal Records Center in Seattle, Washington. The micro-
filmed records are maintained by the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, Office
of Occupational Medicine. This series includes the records of volunteers who are
known to have participated in human radiation experimentation.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Office of Occupational Medicine
Willow Creek Building
Idaho Falls, ID 83401
Federal Records Center
Seattle, WA 98115
99
Hu man Radiation Experiments: The DOE Ro admap t o the Story and the Record s
SERIES TITLE Occupational Dosimetry Records
: |
rnffm
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 947-present
ARRANGEMENT Alphabetical by subject
VOLUME 71 .5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These records contain the results of whole body counts, urinalysis tests, and thyroid
counts measuring personnel for exposure to ionizing radiation. They also contain a
calibration history for the whole body counting equipment. The records include: occu-
pational radiation records; bioassay records; whole body count records; individual
personnel records; and record storage receipts dating back to the late 1940s. There
are bound notebooks containing log entries of whole body counts, including personnel
names, dates, and comments; raw spectra data; viewgraphs of whole body counts,
etc. There are also logbooks containing entries that show the name of the subject,
date, and a comments section for the whole body count which notes the experiment
or study for which the count was performed. Raw spectra data of whole body counts
are also noted. The majority of the records are on microfiche and have been sent to
the Federal Records Center (FRC), Seattle. There are a few records from 1990 to the
present retained onsite. Most of the records have been entered into an electronic
database.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF INEL, Operational Dosimetry Unit Offices
RECORDS Central Facilities, CFA-690
Room 205, Room 11, Room 115, and Records Storage Vault
INEL, Central Facilities Area, CFA 674-E
Federal Records Center
Seattle, WA 98115
SERIES TITLE Office of Operational Safety, Radiological Section,
J.R. Horan Correspondence and Reading Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 958-1 972
ARRANGEMENT Numerical filing system
VOLUME 5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These files, also known as “J.R. Horan Letter Files,” are subject-based files which
contain correspondence, reports, reprints, news clippings, interview transcripts, and
raw data. Horan was the director for many years of the Health and Safety Division.
Subjects include radium, film dosimetry, accidents, radiological assistance, water
quality, structural studies, contamination and decontamination, radiation exposure,
and contamination control. There is one file on John Gofman and Arthur Tamplin
regarding their criticism of the Atomic Energy Commission in the 1970s.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Federal Records Center
Seattle, WA 98115
100
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Idaho Sites
SERIES TITLE
Radiological and Environmental Sciences Laboratory,
Environmental Sciences Branch: Subject Files and INEL
Historical Dose Evaluation Project Files Collected by Eddie Chew
INCLUSIVE DATES
1 952-1 991
ARRANGEMENT
Subject
VOLUME
11 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION
These records contain information used in the INEL Historical Dose Evaluation
(IHDE) Project, along with related subject files of information collected during the
normal course of business. The Historical Dose Evaluation Project studied radiation
dose levels associated with releases and accidents; it produced a final report in two
volumes. The IHDE files contain project reports, task group meeting minutes, and
correspondence. Also included are records documenting operational and episodic
releases and the SL-1 accident. The subject files contain correspondence, con-
tracts, and reports and are filed according to an AEC filing system. These files
concern subjects which include: CERT, Experimental Cloud Exposure Study, SL-1,
SNAPTRAN, CONVAIR Test, SPERT, and LOFT Release.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
INEL, Central Facilities Area (CFA) Federal Records Center
Building CFA-690 RESL, Room 191 Seattle, WA 98115
Idaho Falls, ID 83401
SERIES TITLE Radiological and Environmental Sciences Laboratory:
Files of Doug Carlson, Director
INCLUSIVE DATES
1 958-1 994
ARRANGEMENT
Chronological
Subject
VOLUME
approximately 7 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION
These records include reading files of monthly reports, correspondence from 1 992,
and files containing collected information concerning human experiments. They
contain information on: CERT tests, CERTLE tests, van calibration experiments,
human nuclide studies, capsule experiments, the SL-1 accident, and an experiment
apparently conducted on a University of Arkansas graduate student at that facility
who later became an INEL employee. The document types include: monthly activity
reports, AEC Reports, journal articles, correspondence, and notes and reports
summarizing experiments. Important information in this series includes: lists of
experiment participants, summaries of experiments, CERT progress reports, infor-
mation on CERT funding, and experiment logbooks containing consent forms.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF INEL, Central Facilities Area (CFA) Federal Records Center
RECORDS Office of the Director Seattle, WA 981 1 5
Building RESL CFA-690
Idaho Falls, ID 83401
101
Hu man Radiation Experim ents: The D OE Roadmap to t he Story a n d the Recor ds
SERIES TITLE Radiological and Environmental Sciences Laboratory,
4
Whole Body Counting Records Collected by Dale G. Olsen
INCLUSIVE DATES 1961-1 994
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
Subject
VOLUME approximately 4 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These records include the journal articles, dectapes and dectape logs, reports on
bioassay techniques, and whole body counting logbooks kept in the office of the
Branch Chief of the Laboratory Accreditation Program. The logbooks record whole
body counts conducted by Dale Olsen and others. One logbook entitled “Human
Ingestion Capsule” contains information on body counts of people who voluntarily
swallowed capsules containing radioisotopes. This log includes 10 signed consent
forms.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
INEL, Central Facilities Area (CFA)
Building RESL CFA-690, Room 115
Idaho Falls, ID 83401
Federal Records Center
Seattle, WA 98115
(cabinet DOELAP, drawer #4 and adja-
cent bookcase)
SERIES TITLE Papers, Speeches, and Publications Files of Claude W. Sill
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 955-1 980
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series contains the records of Claude Sill, who was chief of the Analytical Chem-
istry Branch at Idaho, part of the Health and Safety Division, for approximately 27
years. He worked for DOE from 1951 to 1980 and is currently employed by Lockheed
Idaho Technologies Co., as a principal scientist. His branch provided analytic bioas-
say services for all contractors at Idaho and he was responsible for the whole body
counters. He and his staff actively published and participated in professional meetings
and these records include speeches at health physics and bioassay meetings and
publications in a variety of journals and proceedings. He also has some logbooks and
loose paper files. His records include accounts of his involvement in the Controlled
Environmental Radioiodine Test (CERT) and use of humans for the calibration of
analytical equipment. He also has in his collection an article on considerations when
using human volunteers in experiments with radioisotopes.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF INEL, Test Reactor Area
RECORDS Building TRA 604, Alpha Wing,
Rooms 111, 118
Idaho Falls, ID 83401
Federal Records Center
Seattle, WA 98115
102
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Idaho Sites
SERIES TITLE Site Contractor General Managers Correspondence and Reports Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 975-1 986
ARRANGEMENT (Multiple filing systems)
VOLUME 25 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series is composed of the records of the general managers of site contractors
for the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory and some of their employees. There
are two contractors included here who managed the site. The first is Aerojet Nuclear
Company (ANC) which managed the site from 1971 until 1976, and the second is
EG&G which managed the site from 1976 until 1994. The records consist of incoming
and outgoing correspondence with the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission and with its
successor, the U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration. Also in-
cluded are internal memorandums, annual reports, project descriptions, engineering
design papers and proposals, operating procedures, operating reports, procedural
guidelines, and minutes of weekly managers meetings. A few subject files deal with
issues of safety and risk assessment and the Accident Investigation Committee. The
general managers whose records comprise the bulk of the material are C. K. Leeper,
who was general manager for ANC, and J.O. Zane, who worked for both ANC and
EG&G. Zane’s files include some created before he became general manager. Also
included are the records of Gary Marx, who was the manager of the Department of
Planning and Budgets for EG&G. His records include copies of correspondence and
reports, arranged by department, and his budget presentations. There is one box of
correspondence of J.R. Dubay of Material, Plant Services, and Engineering. General
manager files for an earlier period have not been located and may have been de-
stroyed.
LOCATION OF Federal Records Center
RECORDS Seattle, WA 98115
103
Human Ra diation Experim e nts: The D OE Roa dmap to the St or y and th e R ecor ds
SERIES TITLE Site Managing Contractor Health and Safety Division, and EG&G
Safety and Environmental Programs Division Correspondence Logs
and Report Copy Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 969-1 985
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
Author
VOLUME 13 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series consists of office copies of correspondence and reports generated by and
collected by their authors. The individuals who kept these files worked in the Health
and Safety Division, and its successor divisions, over a long period of time. Their files
record the various changes in contractors and organizational structure within an office
that performed essentially the same function over this period. The contractor health
and safety offices were concerned primarily with health safety and security issues that
arose out of the day-to-day hazards of work on the site. Types of documents in this
series include: memos, letters, route slips, weekly and monthly reports, safety anom-
aly reports, photographs, safety manuals, maps, plans, organization charts, and log
books. They cover many safety related subjects including: bus accidents, pest control,
decontamination, safety reviews, dosimetry, whole body counting, radiation protection,
LOFT, and budgets. At least two letters discuss the planned human iodine-131 skin
absorption experiment. The individuals whose files are collected in this series include:
J. W. McCaslin, J. L. Clark, Lamar J. Johnson, Richard B. O’Brien, D. P. Halls, and
Bryce L. Rich.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Federal Records Center
Seattle, WA 98115
SERIES TITLE Contractor Medical and Bioassay Records
INCLUSIVE DATES 1951-1989
ARRANGEMENT Alphabetical (medical records)
Chronological (bioassay records)
VOLUME 11 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series contains bioassay and medical records from the Science and Technology
Branch’s Operational Dosimetry Organizations and the Quality Assurance, Safety, and
Security — Industrial Safety — Medical Departments of the Idaho National Engineering
Laboratory. The medical records were kept for personnel working under various DOE
contractors during this period, including ENICO, AS&S, Industrial Safety, Allied Chem-
ical Corporation, Aerojet, and Idaho Nuclear Corporation. Document types included
in the series are bioassays and medical records of individuals from 1951 to 1989.
Bioassay records are kept by analysis number which are roughly chronological. Medi-
cal records include physical examinations of employees, medical tests, and other
medical information and are kept alphabetically by employee last name.
RESTRICTIONS These records contain privacy material.
LOCATION OF Federal Records Center
RECORDS Seattle, WA 98115
104
Chapter 2. Narratives a nd Records Ser ies — I nstitutional Areas: Idaho Sites
SERIES TITLE INEL Safety Branch Correspondence and Report Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 962-1 981
ARRANGEMENT Document type and date
VOLUME 7 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These records document the safety monitoring by the following safety branches of the
Idaho National Engineering Laboratory from 1960 to 1974: Idaho Nuclear Company
Health and Safety, Directors Office of Health and Safety; EG&G Idaho, Safety Divi-
sion; EG&G Idaho, Technical Safety Support Division; EG&G Idaho, Safety Support;
EG&G Idaho, System Safety Development Center, Safety and Environmental Pro-
grams; and related safety branches of Aerojet Nuclear Company. The types of docu-
ments in this series include logbooks of instrument calibrations; Aerojet Nuclear
Company correspondence of W.D. Hanson, P.B. Anderson, and others; industrial
hygiene and safety correspondence (log of letters, subjects include safety issues,
hazardous material disposal and spills, and equipment safety monitoring); health and
safety equipment assessments; Governor’s Committee on Radiation Directives and
related correspondence; annual safety surveys and appraisals; D.P. Hall’s, T.
Sticklers, and J.W. McCaslin’s letters; and EG&G Idaho Interoffice Correspondence,
letter logs, and document review forms. A rough box content listing is available.
LOCATION OF Federal Record Center
RECORDS Seattle, WA 98115
SERIES TITLE Auto-radiograph Plates of Fallout and Stack Gas Filters by Analytical
Chemistry Branch, Environmental Safety Division, Aerojet Nuclear Company
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 974-1 976
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION This series contains auto-radiographs of fallout collection plates of the Idaho National
Engineering Laboratory gas stacks and soil samples. The series includes request
forms from E.B. Tycz of the Environmental Safety Division for analysis by the Analyti-
cal Chemistry Branch of the Aerojet Nuclear Company, together with the plates of gas
fallout from the stacks and deposition samples from the soil. Exposure time and date
are marked on each plate as well as a tracking number generated by the Spectros-
copy Section. The request forms indicate that the results were reported to D. Boyer
and are in chronological order. The series also includes photographs of the radio-
graphs. Isotopes include Rubidium-106, Sb-125, and Cs-137 soil samples. Titles of
plates include “Stack Gas Filter” and “Fallout Plate.” Plates from 1959 to 1974 have
been destroyed; thus records documenting intentional releases as part of the Con-
trolled Environmental Release Tests (CERT) 1963 through 1968 are not included.
LOCATION OF Federal Records Center
RECORDS Seattle, WA 98115
105
Huma n Rad i ation Exp erime nts: The D OE Roa dmap to the S tory and the Records
SERIES TITLE Phillips Petroleum Company Health Physics and Reactor Background
Radiation Logs and Reports
INCLUSIVE DATES 1951-1 964
ARRANGEMENT Within the logs, chronological; otherwise none
VOLUME 5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The bulk of these records are logs kept by the Materials Test Reactor, Health
Physics Section. Since 1951, a continuous survey of background radiation was
kept at the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory by the Health Physics section
or the Health and Safety Division of the Phillips Petroleum Company. The survey
was maintained in these logbooks. Start-up logs appear to be the first logs kept
of a reactor. The logs record the background radiation day by day. Information
includes the location, date, time of day the reading was taken, the background
radiation count, and narrative comments. Health Physics logs were also recorded
by date and shift, and include the work done by employees, and the names of
employees in each area of the reactor. They also include records of isotopes
acquired. There is some mention of System for Nuclear Auxiliary Power (SNAP)
tests. Also included are Radioactivity Incident Reports which include the supervi-
sor’s name, the names of personnel involved, the date and time of the incident,
the material involved, narratives of the incidents, graphs, records of medical
examinations conducted, and tissue or excreta samples collected and examined.
These reports include thyroid exposure data for the iodine exposure incident in
1 958. There are also logbooks of hot-waste-water storage tank samples and safe
work permits.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Federal Records Center
Seattle, WA 98115
106
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Idaho Sites
SERIES TITLE
Phillips Petroleum Company, Operations Office,
Radioactive Waste and Release Files
INCLUSIVE DATES
1951-1977
ARRANGEMENT
Roughly chronological
VOLUME
3 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION
This series contains records related to the Phillips Petroleum Company radiation
exposures, radioactive waste, and litigation. Types of documents include the follow-
ing: Operations Office notes (1975); Boaz folder containing information on Boaz v.
Phillips Petroleum Co. litigation; Special Badge Pulls for all Idaho Chemical Process-
ing Plant (CPP) visitors (1973); Phillips Petroleum Company correspondence
(1951-1959) discussing radiation exposure and release incidents including write-ups
for safety and a facility map; RaLa iodine release, including reference to thyroid
counter during RaLa run; 1957 correspondence of A.L. Ayers, Assistant CPP Pro-
duction Superintendent, Atomic Energy Division; Radioactive Waste Report (monthly
from 1965 to 1971); radioactive waste from 1953 to 1971 including stack monitor
data sheets; Waste Calcining Facility Off-Gas Samples (1-1-68); Onsite Radioactive
Materials Shipment Records (1974); Stack Monitoring Notes 1960-1961; Radioac-
tive Waste Forms (1977); and Stack Sample Analytical Data. A folder in box 24474
entitled “Boaz-lmpressions from the Witness Chair” discusses the suit charging
Phillip Petroleum Co., (Boaz v. Phillips Petroleum Company) with release of radioac-
tivity and radiation causing leukemia, as well as the need to keep good logbooks at
facilities. This folder includes depositions of John Horan, Charles M. Boaz, and
Denzel K. Jenson in this case. A rough box contents listing is available for the three
boxes.
LOCATION OF Federal Records Center
RECORDS Seattle, WA 98115
SERIES TITLE Technical Library Reports File
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 950-present
ARRANGEMENT Report type; thereunder by report number
VOLUME approximately 300 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series consists of a collection of reports and publications maintained in the INEL
Technical Library. There are approximately 800,000 reports on film and 200,000 in
hard copy. INEL staff members are allowed to check out these reports for their per-
sonal use so some may be missing at any given time. Included are DOE Idaho num-
bered reports, Health and Safety Division annual reports, and the Radiological and
Scientific Laboratory (RESL) annual reports.
LOCATION OF University Place
RECORDS Idaho Falls, ID 83401
107
Human Radiation E xperim ents: T he DO E Roadmap t o the St o ry and the Records
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
The Site Today
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (LBL) is a
multiprogram research facility in Berkeley, CA.
The University of California (UC) operates the
Laboratory under a managing and operating con-
tract with DOE. The Laboratory employs about
3,500 people and has an annual budget of about
$250 million. Research at LBL focuses on energy
technology and biological sciences. The Labora-
tory operates unique national scientific facilities,
including the Advanced Light Source and the Na-
tional Tritium Labeling Facility. LBL trains scien-
tists and engineers and is involved in advanced
technology transfer. LBL is also now expanding
work in health sciences, environmental restora-
tion, waste management, and energy efficiency.
Site History
The Laboratory has played an important role in
the development of modern science and technol-
ogy. Current ideas about using large teams to run
complex equipment and explore interdisciplinary
scientific issues originated at Berkeley. Many
prominent scientists have worked at the Labora-
tory, nine of whom have won the Nobel Prize.
Current ideas about using large teams to
run complex equipment and explore inter-
disciplinary scientific issues originated at
Berkeley.
The origin of the Laboratory is traced to the ar-
rival of Ernest O. Lawrence at UC Berkeley in
1928. Lawrence was a pioneer in nuclear phys-
ics: he built the world’s first cyclotron at Berke-
ley in 1930. This machine accelerated nuclear
particles in a predictable path by means of mag-
netic and oscillating electrical fields. The result-
ing beam of high-speed particles could disinte-
grate atomic nuclei and produce radioactive iso-
topes. The cyclotron opened new research op-
portunities in physics, chemistry, biology, and
medicine. An adept entrepreneur, Lawrence met
with steady success in convincing funding institu-
tions of the scientific and practical benefits of his
ideas. He won formal establishment of a UC Ra-
diation Laboratory in 1936.
Lawrence, who served as Laboratory Director
until his death in 1958, established a method of
research known as “big science.” Before estab-
lishment of the Radiation Laboratory, individual
scientists had conducted research using simple
equipment that they operated and built them-
selves. The cyclotron, however, was a large and
complex machine that required the steady atten-
tion of many skilled people. The multiple uses to
which a cyclotron could be put also led to the
use of interdisciplinary research teams. This col-
laboration spawned significant technological de-
velopments, including powerful x-ray machines,
new radioactive isotopes, and improved under-
standing of atomic and biological processes
Figure 25. Respiration analysis using injected radioactive tracers at
Donner Laboratory (circa 1968).
The Radiation Laboratory continued to grow
with cyclotron advancement. Development ran
from the 37-inch and 60-inch cyclotrons during
the 1930s, the 184-inch cyclotron during the
1940s, and the various specialized accelerators
and other machines such as the Super-Hilac, the
Bevatron, and the Advanced Light Source during
108
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
the decades after the Second World War. Upon
Lawrence’s death, the facility was renamed Law-
rence Radiation Laboratory. The University as-
signed the present title, Lawrence Berkeley Lab-
oratory, in 1971.
Lawrence and his Laboratory were deeply in-
volved in the war effort. Lawrence himself was
one of the first scientists to believe that atomic
weapons were feasible. His advocacy contrib-
uted to the creation of the Manhattan Engineer
District, which assumed responsibility for the
Laboratory’s research in 1943. During this pe-
riod, the Laboratory focused on developing a
process for electromagnetic separation of a fis-
sionable uranium isotope (uranium-235) for use
in an atomic bomb. Using cyclotron technology
and chemical processing techniques, the Labora-
tory produced the first samples of uranium-235.
Berkeley participated in the design and construc-
tion of the electromagnetic separation plant
(Y— 1 2) in Oak Ridge, TN. When the plant be-
came operational, Lawrence and his staff de-
voted considerable time to resolving practical
engineering issues and training the hundreds of
people needed to operate the equipment.
Lawrence and his Laboratory were deeply
involved in the war effort.
The Laboratory’s scientific infrastructure sup-
ported important work in nuclear chemistry, in-
cluding the discovery of many new transuranic
elements. Laboratory researchers had discov-
ered the first such element, neptunium, in 1940.
Glenn T. Seaborg continued this work with the
discovery of plutonium and played a key role in
the discovery of over half a dozen new elements
through the 1 950s.
Work at the Laboratory also gradually expanded
into other areas. A materials science center, es-
tablished in 1961, studied the fundamental na-
ture of materials at the molecular and atomic
levels. By the 1970s, a major chemical biodynam-
ics program was exploring green-plant photosyn-
thesis and the chemical events that preceded the
origin of life on Earth. The energy crises of the
1970s led to work on fusion, geothermal, and
solar energy technologies.
Figure 26. A patient under a positron camera. The camera was a
diagnostic tool developed at Donner Laboratory, Berkeley, to
photograph radioactive tracer concentrations. Unlike a whole body
scanner, this device photographs a single, specific area of the body.
Site Human Radiation Experiments
The Laboratory has a long history of biomedical
research involving radiation. Ernest Lawrence
quickly realized the potential of radiobiology
both for advancing science and for obtaining
funding. Soon after creation of the Laboratory,
he formed a Medical Physics Section. During the
war, he established the Donner Laboratory spe-
cifically for this work. Early practitioners of radi-
ation experiments at the Laboratory included
John Lawrence, Paul Aebersold, Robert Stone,
and Joseph Hamilton; all these individuals be-
came major figures in radiobiology research.
Starting in the 1930s, biomedical researchers
used the Laboratory’s new equipment (such as
particle beam accelerators and more powerful
x-ray tubes) and substances (radioactive iso-
topes) to do experimental work on animals and
people. The work on people centered on trial
therapies for various medical conditions, espe-
cially cancer. Much of this medical treatment
took place under the auspices of the UC hospital
and medical school in San Francisco, and ad-
vanced the understanding of polycythemia rubra
vera, leukemia, thyroid disorders, and other dis-
eases. While this work was important from a
scientific perspective, the practices surrounding
patient consent and selection are unclear. Stone
and Hamilton initiated these studies during the
1930s, and both played key roles in controver-
sial wartime human experiments with plutonium
| and other radioactive substances.
109
Hum an Radiation Experiments: T he DOE R oa dm ap to the Story and the Records
During the war, the Laboratory curtailed its
experimental treatment of disease and centered
its biomedical research on issues associated with
production of fissionable materials. While such
materials were known to be harmful, production
for the atomic bomb required hundreds of
workers to labor with and possibly receive high
exposure from them. Critical areas of concern
were the effects of radioactive substances when
they were inhaled, ingested, or entered the
bloodstream through the skin.
During the war, the Laboratory centered
its biomedical research on issues associ-
ated with production of fissionable mate-
rials.
While health protection was an overarching
concern, other factors were apparent as well.
Stafford Warren, head of the MED Health Sec-
tion, noted that health and safety measures were
needed to keep workers healthy and on the pro-
duction lines. Security considerations also played
a role in the desire to limit occupational illnesses
and offsite radiation releases.
Working under the Health Section of the Univer-
sity of Chicago’s Metallurgical Laboratory, the Ra-
diation Laboratory was uniquely positioned to
help the Manhattan Project. During the 1 930s,
Joseph Hamilton had established the Nation’s first
systematic radiation health and safety program at
the Laboratory, and Warren applied Hamilton’s
ideas throughout the Manhattan Project.
Hamilton and some colleagues were also experi-
enced in conducting experimental procedures
involving radiation and radioactive substances.
Berkeley medical staff injected three people with
plutonium and one with americium at the UC
hospital as part of the controversial human plu-
tonium experiments.
Beyond the plutonium studies, Stone, Hamilton,
and other laboratory researchers such as
Cornelias Tobias, Bertram Low-Beer, and John
Gofman conducted experiments with fission
products and other radioactive substances dur-
ing the war and immediately thereafter. There
was also interest in the metabolism of thorium,
protactinium, uranium, and yttrium. Most of this
Figure 27. A kidney examination using a scintillation camera at
Donner Laboratory, Berkeley.
research involved the use of animals, although
Hamilton conducted studies involving the inhala-
tion of zirconium oxides by human subjects.
Limited consent documentation is avail-
able for these early human studies. The
therapeutic intent of this work is also un-
clear.
Other human studies involved the therapeutic
and experimental use of radioactive potassium,
tritium, iron, astatine, and carbon. Particle beams
and other external radiation sources were also
used. These studies had multiple, sometimes
overlapping, purposes. They were conducted to
treat disease, to understand biological processes,
and to refine radiation dose/response informa-
tion. As noted earlier, limited consent documen-
tation is available for these early human studies.
The therapeutic intent of this work is also un-
clear. While there was interest in treating cancer,
for example, there was also strong interest in
learning more about the body and how it was af-
fected by radiation.
Other Laboratory biomedical research projects
from the 1950s through to the present day in-
clude genetic mapping and sequencing, structural
and molecular biology, biology of human disease,
and bimolecular design. Researchers have had
success in learning about cancer, arteriosclero-
sis, and blood disorders. The laboratory has in
Cha pter 2. Narratives and Rec o rds Series — Institu tio nal Areas: Lawre nc e Berkeley Laborato ry
recent decades developed sophisticated medical
imaging equipment, including Positron Emission
Tomography and Computed Tomograph diag-
nostic scanners. While currently verified site
experiments are detailed in Chapter 3, DOE
expects to identify and describe additional
Berkeley-related experiments in the near future.
Site Records Collections
Of all DOE facilities, LBL has done the best
work in placing its records under intellectual
control. The key to this success is a comprehen-
sive inventory the laboratory has prepared for
its active and inactive records. This inventory
covers records of potential value for human ra-
Figure 28. Early use of a Geiger-Muller counter to test thyroid
function at Lawrence Radiation Laboratory.
diation experiments, as well as all other labora-
tory records. Space does not permit inclusion of
the total inventory here. In addition, LBL archi-
vists and records managers are working to iden-
tify and describe records relating to human radi-
ation experiments at other sites including Uni-
versity of California facilities in San Francisco and
Los Angeles. DOE will make the results of this
work available when it is completed. Research-
ers should contact OHRE or LBL for further
information and assistance.
Of all Department of Energy facilities,
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory has done
the best work in placing its records under
intellectual control.
There is much documentation at LBL of human
radiation experimentation from the 1 930s to the
present. Records detailing the work of Joseph
Hamilton, Cornelius Tobias, E.O. and John Law-
rence, John Gofman, Patricia Durbin, and other
scientists are available. Experiments and other
activities are discussed in files of the Crocker Lab-
oratory, Donner Laboratory, and LBL Biology and
Medicine Division. Topics covered include devel-
opment of human use protocols, and specific iso-
tope tracer and total body irradiation studies.
Nearly all Laboratory records are unclassified or
have been declassified. The location, content, and
availability of especially pertinent records series
are described are described below.
1 1 1
H uman Radiation E xperiments: The DOE Roadma p to the St ory and the Records
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (LBL)
SERIES TITLE LBL Business Manager/Research and Development Administrative Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 946-1 988
ARRANGEMENT Subject, thereunder chronologically
VOLUME 281 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series contains administrative documents, including materials relating to patents
and inventions, purchasing operations, security, foreign visitors and building mainte-
nance, construction, furnishings and equipment, materials pertaining to various accel-
erators, weapons tests, computers, miscellaneous personnel files, and files pertaining
to finances. There are also files concerned with industrial hygiene and accidental
exposure to radiation of staff members. The files include correspondence, reports,
photographs, blueprints, and handbooks. The files were created during the adminis-
trations of multiple Lab directors.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
Federal Records Center
1000 Commodore Drive
San Bruno, CA 94066
SERIES TITLE Life Sciences Division— Administrative Files of Baird Whaley, Administrator
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 947-1 988
ARRANGEMENT None
VOLUME 137 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents administrative activities of the Life Sciences Division. Documents
include project correspondence, program proposals, human use information, budget
information, annual reports, and building and equipment additions/maintenance. Sub-
jects include NASA, LRL, and Atomic Energy Commission proposals; human use
protocol development and specific program protocols; Bevalac planning, space alloca-
tion, and funding; Electron Linac and 184-inch Cyclotron administrative and project
development information; fiscal year funding, budget, and recharge documentation; and
Donner Laboratory historical administrative information, including Human Use Commit-
tee (of LBL) and Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects (of UCB) correspon-
dence and protocol development with the Department of Health, Education, and Wel-
fare and the National Institutes of Health. The records also contain correspondence
documenting the establishment of biomedical research units at hospitals in Thailand
and India.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
Federal Records Center
1000 Commodore Drive
San Bruno, CA 94066
M2
Chapter 2. Narrative s and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Lawrenc e Ber keley Lab o ratory
SERIES TITLE Administrative Files of Administrative Assistants to the Directors
of the Biology and Medicine Division and Donner Laboratory
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 946-1 987
ARRANGEMENT Reverse chronological order
Subject
VOLUME 38 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series consists of administrative records created by various Administrative Assis-
tants (among them: Igor Blake, R.A. San Souci, and Baird Whaley) in the course of
their work for various Directors of the Biology and Medicine Division and Donner
Laboratory (among them: John Lawrence, and James Born). Records include historic
documents chronicling the planning, building, and funding of Donner Laboratory,
Donner Annex, and Donner Pavilion; Director’s Funds Research Proposals; corre-
spondence; account ledgers; manuals; news clippings; blueprints and floor plans;
animal care expenditures and inventories; Lab population lists; reprints of journal
articles; Field Task Proposals; grant files; photographs; newsletters; organizational
charts; purchase orders; and invoices. Correspondence sometimes contains descrip-
tions of human experiments conducted or planned, including isotopes used and
patient/subject selection.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
Federal Records Center
1000 Commodore Drive
San Bruno, CA 94066
SERIES TITLE Donner Clinic and Donner Pavilion Patients/Subjects index Card Master File
INCLUSIVE DATES 1938-75
ARRANGEMENT Alphabetical by patient name
VOLUME 3.75 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents patients and subjects treated at the Donner Pavilion and
Donner Clinic between 1938 and 1975. The index was created to keep track of and
assist in locating medical charts for patients and subjects treated at the two Donner
facilities. This is a semiactive records series maintained at Donner Pavilion, Life
Sciences Division. These records contain: clinic number; patient, address, referring
physician, referral diagnosis, date first seen, birth date, and death date. On some of
the cards, the Patient Identification Number has been handwritten on the card.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
Federal Records Center
1000 Commodore Drive
San Bruno, CA 94066
113
Human Radia tion Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
INCLUSIVE DATES ca. 1946-1977
ARRANGEMENT Record type
VOLUME 10 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series is comprised of patient appointment books, blood and bone marrow data,
iron studies data, and miscellaneous clinical information pertaining to platelets,
hematocrits, electrophoresis, and osmotic fragility. The majority of the information in this
series is kept in small, bound logs or notebooks. Appointment books contain patient
name, procedures, and physician name. Blood counts and bone marrow data include
patient name, date of count, raw data, and occasional notes. Iron studies include patient
name, weight, date, diagnosis and radioactivity injected, plus graphs and data relating
to iron-59 injections. Several binders labeled “Blood Volumes” contain sheets listing
patient name, weight, height, references to iodine-131 and date, time, and volume of
injection. There are 13 sheets here that include the notation “San Quentin” after the
patient name. These “San Quentin” sheets date from February and March of 1950.
Miscellaneous clinical entries include patient name, date, and raw data.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
Federal Records Center
1000 Commodore Drive
San Bruno, CA 94066
SERIES TITLE Donner Laboratory R&D Project Case Files —
High-Altitude/Decompression Studies
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 940-1 954
ARRANGEMENT Varies
VOLUME 17 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents the research and activities of the Donner Laboratory, Aviation
Medicine and High Altitude Physiology staff during WWII. The aim of these studies
was to determine the effects of decompression on the human body for flight person-
nel. The series includes records documenting the experimental procedures performed
on Peruvian, Army, Navy, Air Force, ROTC, and civilian subjects, as well as animals,
in the decompression chamber and during flights out of the San Diego Aviation field.
Radioactive isotopes were used as tracers in many of these studies. The series con-
tains Committee on Aviation Medicine (CAM) reports, experimental notes, procedures
performed on individual subjects, correspondence, individual scientist’s files and notes
(Hardin Jones and John Lawrence), x rays of the knees and craniums of subjects,
collected reference articles, photographs, graphs, charts, and original signed consent
forms for underage subjects involved in these studies.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains a small amount of classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
Federal Records Center
1000 Commodore Drive
San Bruno, CA 94066
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
SERIES TITLE Patient Medical Records
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 936-1 983
ARRANGEMENT Disease name; thereunder alphabetical by patient name
VOLUME 149 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents treatment of patients at the Donner Laboratory. Records
consist of information and patient history forms, blood counts, urinalyses, correspon-
dence with referring doctors and with patients, photographs, graphs, electrocardio-
graphs, tomographic scans, notes, isotope therapy records, daily observations, and
lists of dosages; in some cases consent forms are also present. Diseases docu-
mented include Hodgkin’s disease, lymphatic leukemia, multiple myeloma, polycythe-
mia rubra vera, thyroid problems, and acromegaly. Most pre-1 950s cases appear to
have involved John H. Lawrence. Cases from 1950 and beyond involved other re-
searchers at Donner Laboratory; Lawrence continued to oversee patient cases
through the 1960s, when cases were seen by John A. Linfoot. Some records pertain
to experimental work with radioactivity, and document treatment with x rays, radioac-
tive phosphorus and strontium, iron, and radioactive yttrium for above-mentioned
diseases. An index of diseases and cartons in which they are found is available.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
Federal Records Center
1000 Commodore Drive
San Bruno, CA 94066
SERIES TITLE Research Medicine and Radiation Biophysics Historical Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 957-1 979
ARRANGEMENT Varies
VOLUME 11 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents development of nuclear radiation techniques for medical
research at Donner Laboratory. Included are slides of experiments, grant proposals
(both funded and not funded from 1966 to 1974), and films of Donner research, for
both public and medical audiences. The grant proposal folders contain UC Request
for Report of Inventions, Notice of Grants Awarded by the Dept, of Health, Education
and Welfare, detailed budget sheets, Application for Research Grant Continuation
Support, Summary Progress Reports, Notice of Research Project, and Committee for
the Protection of Human Subjects approval memos. It appears that human involve-
ment in these studies is limited to blood plasma/lipoproteins studies, but the project
descriptions are lacking in some of these folders. Photographs of Donner staff from
the 1950s, funding source lists, and articles are also present.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
Federal Records Center
1000 Commodore Drive
San Bruno, CA 94066
115
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Statistical Summaries
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 937-1 989
ARRANGEMENT Varies
VOLUME 1.2 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These files consist of statistical summaries of patients/subjects treated at the Donner
Pavilion and Donner Clinic and in the several programs in Research Medicine since
1975. The records are primarily typescript pages that are maintained in three-ring
binders and provide chronological statistical summaries of the treatment of pa-
tients/subjects at LBL by nuclear and radiological therapies. The format of the sum-
mary reports in each binder changes over time. These records were created and
maintained for both their statistical summary function as well as a finding aid to be
used in conjunction with the various card indexes for keeping track of biomedical
charts for patients and subjects treated in the various Research Medicine Programs.
Included are listings of all Donner patients/subjects; listings of new patients and
deaths; survival lists of patients/subjects treated with alpha-particle irradiation orga-
nized by diagnosis, including but not limited to acromegaly, Nelson’s Syndrome,
Diabetic Retinopathy, Breast Cancer and prolactin-secreting pituitary adenoma; and
lists of potential patients. A finding aid is available.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
Federal Records Center
1000 Commodore Drive
San Bruno, CA 94066
SERIES TITLE Thomas Budinger Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 961-1 983
ARRANGEMENT Varies
VOLUME 27 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents the research and activities of Budinger (Medical Director of
Donner Laboratory from 1967 to 1978), from 1950 to 1984. Included are the following:
original correspondence for Donner Medical Lab research; experimental/equipment
development such as Positron Emission Tomography (PET), scanning techniques, and
camera studies; patient files, including photographs of whole body, head, and hand
scans and procedures performed; correspondence about patients/research subjects;
proposals to, and the protocol of, the Human Use Committee; Budinger’s notes; copies
of reference articles; conferences/workshops attended and organized; notes on student
experimental activities; and copies of grant proposals to various organizations submitted
to Budinger for review. The series contains records related to experiments on humans
and animals using many radioactive isotopes. The series is composed primarily of
paper records, but also includes Laboratory photographs of scans.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
Federal Records Center
1000 Commodore Drive
San Bruno, CA 94066
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
SERIES TITLE Patricia Durbin Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 940-1 994
ARRANGEMENT Chronological by project or topic
VOLUME 89 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION
This series consists of correspondence, abstracts, project descriptions, progress
reports, original and final drafts of papers, grant proposals, notebooks, animal proto-
cols, visual records, research specimens, and reference files created and maintained
by Durbin. The files dating from 1940 to 1957 are research records from the Crocker
Laboratory that were inherited by Durbin and are maintained by her as part of this
series; these particular files have been microfilmed. Crocker Laboratory files dating
from 1940 to 1957 include some files created or maintained by Joseph Hamilton.
There is some variation in the format of the paper records, particularly in the refer-
ence files, which contain index cards and complete sets of animal progress reports
of other biology groups in other national laboratories. Visual records (35mm slides,
lantern slides, auto radiographs) total 2.75 feet and research specimens (microscope
slides, bone blocks, bone bottles) total 5.25 feet.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
Federal Records Center
1000 Commodore Drive
San Bruno, CA 94066
SERIES TITLE John W, Gofman Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 950-1 959
ARRANGEMENT Varies
VOLUME 4 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents Gofman’s research, which included thyroid studies, cancer
and drug research, studies of lipoproteins and atherosclerosis, as well as his profes-
sional activities, such as University of California committee work. Records consist of
correspondence, patient data, group progress reports, proposals, drafts, papers,
questionnaires, follow-up forms, blood shipment lists, case report forms, and refer-
ences. They are arranged loosely by study, so that most data pertaining to a particular
experiment or study in a project is kept in one folder; blood sample information ap-
pears to be arranged by source (e.g., doctor providing the blood; other records, such
as correspondence and reports, are not arranged systematically).
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
Federal Records Center
1000 Commodore Drive
San Bruno, CA 94066
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Joseph G. Hamilton Records
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 943-1 975
ARRANGEMENT Varies
VOLUME 12 microfilm reels
DESCRIPTION These records have been copied from various collections to form an artificial collec-
tion of records pertaining to Hamilton. Many of these records were created by Hamil-
ton and transferred to the LBL Archives and Records Office in 1957. Patricia Durbin
used the files for her follow-up study of the 1945-1947 plutonium injections. Attached
to each reel are file folder listings, a biographical sketch of Joseph G. Hamilton, and
a scope and content note. Some notable projects represented here include Dugway
bomb tests, and Project Sunshine, a study of the effects of strontium-90. Other re-
cords from the 1950s seem to be more directly related to Durbin’s research or to the
research of other, newer members of the research group. They document Durbin’s
early work with radioactive materials in animals and in some cases with humans.
Human studies include a study of astatine in patients with goiter or adenoma and a
study of milk and baby food (tracing natural levels of strontium and other elements).
Durbin's follow-up studies of people injected with plutonium or americium in the 1 940s
include some correspondence, notes, and data. A finding aid with reel and microfilm
frame numbers is available.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
Federal Records Center
1000 Commodore Drive
San Bruno, CA 94066
SERIES TITLE Joseph G. Hamilton Materials: Edwin M. McMillan Papers
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 938-1 973
ARRANGEMENT None
VOLUME 0.2 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION This series contains correspondence, article reprints, reports, newspaper clippings,
photographs, and transparencies pertaining to the work of Joseph G. Hamilton. The
series documents use of human subjects in Hamilton’s radiation experiments with
photographs of human tissue and charts recording human metabolism of radioiso-
topes. While the photographs of human tissues do not reference particular experi-
ments, they are consistent with other records that document human subject radiation
research by Hamilton. The series was created during the directorships of Edwin
McMillan and E.O. Lawrence, and has no particular arrangement.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
Federal Records Center
1000 Commodore Drive
San Bruno, CA 94066
I 18
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
SERIES TITLE Hardin Jones Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 940-1 978
ARRANGEMENT Author name
VOLUME 3 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series is composed primarily of article reprints from the files of Hardin Jones, but
it also contains some correspondence, papers and reports. The articles come from
a number of medical journals, mostly American, but European as well. They pertain
to a variety of medical disciplines, but many are about experimental procedures and
radiology. Topics include Laguna-Honda Hospital human studies and Donner Clinic
metabolic studies. Experiments located at Laguna-Honda include a I 131 uptake study,
and an electrolyte metabolism study in patients with malignancies using Na 24 and K 42 .
The hospital also studied leukemic children treated with radiation, use of tagged
substances in the study of afferent arteries, and radiation to the pituitary in cancer
patients. In addition to experiments with radiation, patients at Laguna-Honda Hospital
were used for experimental drug and chemical therapies outlined in other funding
proposals in this file.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
Federal Records Center
1000 Commodore Drive
San Bruno, CA 94066
SERIES title John Hundale Lawrence Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 932-1 986
ARRANGEMENT Varies
VOLUME 65 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series chronicles the personal and professional life of Lawrence (1904-1991).
Considered one of the pioneers in the field of nuclear medicine, Lawrence was the
brother of LBL’s first Director, Ernest O. Lawrence. John Lawrence served as Director
of Donner Laboratory (1948-1970), Professor of Medical Physics at the University of
California at Berkeley (1950-1970), Physician-in-Chief, Donner Pavilion (1954-1970),
Associate Director, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory (1959-1970), and Regent of the
University of California (1970 to early 1980s). The series contains correspondence;
photographs; 35mm and lantern slides; preprints and reprints; newspaper clippings;
negatives; charts; graphs; data; manuscripts; course materials; curricula vitae; floor
plans; protocols; records of invention; viewgraphs; speeches and talks; sound record-
ings; and travel plans. These records clearly depict the scientific and social milieu in
which Lawrence operated. The correspondence documents the growth of Lawrence’s
international reputation in nuclear medicine; his personal, religious, and political
beliefs; Lawrence family history; and the history of Donner Lab, Donner Pavilion, and
the Metabolic Unit at Cowell Hospital.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Federal Records Center
RECORDS Archives and Records Office 1000 Commodore Drive
Berkeley, CA 94720 San Bruno, CA 94066
Hum an Radiation Experiments: T he DOE Roadm ap to the St ory and th e Re cords
SERIES TITLE John Hundale Lawrence Research Subject Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 962-1 975
ARRANGEMENT None
VOLUME 0.3 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION This series documents the research and administrative activities of Lawrence
(1904-1991), brother of founder of LBL, Ernest O. Lawrence. In 1935 John Lawrence
joined Ernest in Berkeley and became interested in the use of artificially produced
radioisotopes and nuclear radiation in medicine. In 1936 Lawrence founded the
Donner Laboratory within the Radiation Laboratory. Lawrence retired from Donner in
1969. He served as a University of California (UC) regent from 1970 to 1983 and was
president of the Society of Nuclear Medicine in 1966-1967. This series is composed
of two subseries: subject files in labeled file folders and a binder labeled Slides JHL.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
Federal Records Center
1000 Commodore Drive
San Bruno, CA 94066
SERIES TITLE Thornton Sargent Administrative Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1961-1994
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 11 .5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION Dr. Thornton Sargent is a biophysicist at Donner Laboratory whose research involves
using radioisotopes in human and animal subjects to study physiologic processes.
This series contains correspondence; grant proposals; personnel records, such as
dosimetry, student assistant files by name; Donner staff committee meeting records;
budget and funding information; safety data; radiation safety; administrative materials
relating to whole body counter; pharmaceuticals; experimental proposals for projects
that didn’t get done; Donner administration materials; and travel. This series contains
a file on human use protocols, filed by study name, and a file on consent forms and
human use protocols that were in effect at the time human subject studies were
approved.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Donner Laboratory
LBL Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
120
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
I
IES TITLE Thornton Sargent Patient Medical Case Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 959-1 994
ARRANGEMENT Study
Patient name
VOLUME 17 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series contains patient case files relating to Sargent’s studies using radioisotopes
in human subjects to study physiologic processes. The files include raw data mea-
surements and medical evaluation of subjects for the following studies: studies of
calcium/strontium metabolism in patients with acromegaly and bone cancer (1964-
1969); cobalt studies of subjects with B 12 deficiency v. normal subjects; chromium-51
studies of subjects with diabetes and hemochromatosis (1970s); iron studies of
patients injected with thorotrast to compare iron absorption in normal v. iron deficient
subjects; brain metabolism studies using iodine-122, filed by type of patient, e.g.,
depression, schizophrenia; brain imaging studies using bromine isotope for brain
scanning on laboratory personnel, and zinc studies of mostly normal subjects (mid-
1960s). Patient records note name, weight, height, date of birth, employee number,
work location, phone, date and results of urine bioassay test, dates of whole body
counts, calculation of actual exposure, spectra of detected activity in both tabular and
graphic forms, list of isotopes with which employee regularly works, patient’s uptake
level (if known), and suspected location of exposure, and either referral letter from
outside physician or from Environmental Health & Safety Division of LBL. There are
also records for patients, referred by outside physicians, who may have been exposed
to dangerous levels of radiation (e.g., as a result of Chernobyl nuclear reactor acci-
dent). Records of experimental exposures note isotope used, amount injected, daily
counts, and final analysis.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Donner Laboratory
LBL Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
121
H uman Radiation Experime nts: The DOE Road map to the Story an d the Records
SERIES TITLE Thornton Sargent Publication Working Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 959-1 994
ARRANGEMENT Study name
VOLUME 3 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series contains Sargent’s studies of physiological processes in animal and hu-
man subjects using radioisotopes. Files in this series contain analyses of data, orga-
nized by study title, for studies including: subjects injected with thorotrast to evaluate
difference in iron absorption in normal v. iron deficient subjects; bromine as brain
imaging compound in studies involving lab personnel; cesium-137 and cesium-132
studies of subjects exposed to fallout; studies of calcium/strontium metabolism in
patients with acromegaly and bone cancer (1964-1969); cobalt studies of subjects
with B 12 deficiency v. normal subjects; chromium-51 studies of subjects with diabetes
and hemochromatosis (1970s); zinc studies (unpublished) of mostly normal subjects
(mid-1 960s); and positron emission tomography (PET) 280 fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG)
studies of human subjects with schizophrenia. Titles in this series include: Iron Paper,
FDG in Schizophrenia. These files provide a fairly complete overview of the types of
studies done by Sargent during his years at LBL.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Donner Laboratory
LBL Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
SERIES TITLE Kenneth Scott Oral History Transcript
INCLUSIVE DATES 1979
ARRANGEMENT None
VOLUME 0.2 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION This series consists of a single file that contains an incomplete, 70 page transcript of
an oral history interview of Kenneth Scott conducted by Sally Hughs on December 17,
1979. References to humans treated or experimented with radiation include treating
leukemia patients with radioactive phosphorous in 1937; there are also references to
the plutonium injection experiments.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
Federal Records Center
1000 Commodore Drive
San Bruno, CA 94066
122
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
SERIES TITLE William E. Sin Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 945-1 989
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 11.5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series contains files relating to the research of William Siri who was a physicist
at Donner Laboratory. Topics covered are human body composition, including studies
of total body water, hydrogen exchange, acromegaly, and hypoxia. Files include LBL
interoffice correspondence, and correspondence with outside colleagues; records
relating to biophysics conferences and presentations; committees on which Siri
served, such as Energy and Environment Division Council, and National Research
Council; manuscripts and abstracts in draft, published form, grant applications and
annual reports; drawings and plans for mass spectroscope, and altitude and low
pressure chambers; and patient and human subject charts and graphs. Patient and
human subject documentation includes raw data, cardiograms, notebooks for tritium
studies, and studies using radioisotopes such as carbon-14, potassium-40,
chromium-57, and iron-59. This series contains records of high altitude studies con-
ducted in Peru in 1952, Bolivia in 1957, and relating to the American Mount Everest
Expedition (AMEE) in 1963, using radioisotopes on human subjects. Files are ar-
ranged chronologically by subject in three-ring binders and folders. This series con-
tains videotapes of heart flow and monkey studies, and 21 rolls of numbered electro-
graphs.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Federal Records Center
LBL Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
123
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Cornelius A. Tobias Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 937-1 991
ARRANGEMENT Varies
VOLUME 105 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents Tobias’ work as Professor of Medical Physics at the University
of California at Berkeley, as well as his administration of the Radiation Biophysics
Group at Donner Lab. Primary subseries include: subject and author literature
searches: scientific journal reprints and preprints by both Tobias and others; corre-
spondence; grant applications, research proposals and reports; instructional material;
student theses and dissertations; recommendations for students, faculty and staff;
experimental data; materials related to various Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (LBL)
organizations; LBL publications; documents related to Tobias’ committee work on the
Light Ion Biomedical Research Accelerator (LIBRA) and his Directorship at the Ad-
vanced Biomedical Science and Treatment Center (ABC); and Biology and Medicine
Division staff files. This series also includes bibliographies, curricula vitae, journals,
catalogs, technical reports and papers, patents, notebooks, experimental logbooks,
and transcriptions of Sally Smith Hughs’ oral history interviews of Tobias in
1979-1980.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
Federal Records Center
1000 Commodore Drive
San Bruno, CA 94066
SERIES TITLE Cornelius A. Tobias Files (2)
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 943-1 970
ARRANGEMENT Record type; alphabetical/chronological thereunder
VOLUME 38 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents Tobias’ work as a Radiation Biophysicist at Donner Lab and
LBL, as well as his professional association with various national and international
committees, hospitals, and research facilities. Types of documents included are: drafts
and final, scientific reports; AEC reports on experimentation with plutonium and I 131
(Project 48A); scientific notes and correspondence related to radiation experimentation;
slides, charts, and analysis of the uptake and desaturation curves of humans and
animals used in radioactive tracer experiments; photographs of Donner personnel,
scientific projects, and equipment; student information; curriculum vitae of physicists
considered for jobs at LBL/Donner; Tobias’ notes from classes taken as a graduate
student, including copies of his thesis; publication correspondence; correspondence
relating to applications for human use; correspondence with other facilities in a consulta-
tive capacity for cyclotrons and isotope techniques; blueprints for scientific equipment;
patent files and applications; and copies of notes used for presentations and talks at
seminars and conferences. The series also includes some of Tobias’ personal corre-
spondence and photographs. The series as a whole gives an overview of Tobias’ career
and his interaction with the international scientific community.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
Federal Records Center
1000 Commodore Drive
San Bruno, CA 94066
124
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
SERIES TITLE Donald Van Dyke Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 957-1 975
ARRANGEMENT Varies
VOLUME 10 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents Van Dyke’s work on blood and bone marrow studies. Particu-
lar fields of research included studies of human erythropoietic activity in plasma,
cardiac evaluation from radioisotope dynamics, and blood transport through bone
marrow. Studies include both animal and human experimentation, chiefly for the
advancement of research on forms of leukemia, myeloma, and anemia. Techniques
included induced parabiosis in animals (fusion of two animals to study passage of
solutes from one to the other); skin grafts; spinal cuts; exposure to light and dark, and
in both humans and animals, fluorokinesis, assays using radioactive iron, use of
alpha-corticotrophin, ACTH, EHDP, and synthetic calcitonin; and studies of iron
involved femur injections. The series consists of notebooks, data, graphs, manu-
scripts, drafts, references, photographs, negatives, x rays, correspondence, magnetic
tapes of data, and conference planning materials. Some subjects were prisoners and
were recruited from the United States Public Health Service or San Francisco Public
Health Service; work was also done on patients from San Francisco General Hospital.
Human subjects included normal controls and patients, both adults and children.
Correspondence and administrative records have gaps.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Archives and Records Office
Berkeley, CA 94720
Federal Records Center
1000 Commodore Drive
San Bruno, CA 94066
125
Human Radiation E xperiments: The DOE Ro admap to the Story and the R ecords
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
The Site Today
Historically, the primary mission of Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory has been nuclear
weapons research and design. Livermore now
supports other programs as well, including arms
control and verification, fusion, lasers, materials
research, and general energy research. The Lab-
oratory is situated on 82 1 acres in Livermore,
CA, about 50 miles east of San Francisco. In
1992, Livermore had an operating budget of
over $ I billion and employed approximately
8,000 people. It operates the National Energy
Research Supercomputer Center, the National
Genome Research Center, and other specialized
facilities. Since Livermore’s establishment in
1952, the University of California has run the
Laboratory under a managing and operating con-
tract with DOE.
Site History
After the Soviet Union detonated a nuclear de-
vice in 1949, the United States launched a pro-
gram to develop a hydrogen bomb. Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory grew out of de-
bates within the atomic energy and defense
communities about the adequacy of the re-
sources devoted to the hydrogen bomb pro-
gram. The AEC was initially reluctant to create
another nuclear weapons laboratory in addition
to Los Alamos. Pressure from the Joint Commit-
tee on Atomic Energy and the Department of
Defense, as well as the advocacy of physicist Ed-
ward Teller, led the AEC to build a second
weapons laboratory. The facility was placed at
Livermore, which was then the site of an abor-
tive effort to build a prototype particle accelera-
tor to produce plutonium or tritium.
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
grew out of debates about the adequacy of
resources devoted to the hydrogen bomb
program.
Initially, Livermore was a branch of Ernest O. Law-
rence’s Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley. When
Livermore opened in 1 952, it employed 1 23 peo-
ple, many of them still working in Berkeley.
Broadly speaking, Livermore addressed aspects of
designing and testing thermonuclear weapons and
related research, notably controlled fusion re-
search that became part of the AEC’s Project
Sherwood.
The 1963 test ban treaty and technical dif-
ficulties derailed plans to use nuclear ex-
plosives to excavate a new Atlantic-Pacific
canal through Central America.
The first efforts of Livermore’s bomb designers
proved disappointing, although this did not slow
laboratory growth. Weapons design break-
throughs came in 1955 during Operation Teapot
and in 1956 during Operation Redwing. In 1955,
Livermore received its first weapon develop-
ment assignment, the warhead for the Navy’s
Regulus II cruise missile. Two years later the
Navy commissioned Livermore to design and
develop warheads for its new Polaris missiles.
Two other large development projects also be-
gan in 1957: Project Pluto to develop nuclear
ramjets and Project Plowshare to develop peace-
ful nuclear explosives.
From its inception, Livermore had supported re-
search on magnetic fusion. Under the auspices of
the AEC’s Project Sherwood, several other labo-
ratories were also looking for practical methods
of confining a fusion reaction to produce useful
energy. The laboratory also began its long in-
volvement with high-powered computing in its
early days; the first UNIVAC arrived in 1953 and
was used for fusion and weapons research.
A moratorium on nuclear weapons testing went
into effect in November 1958, lasting almost 3
years. Despite questions raised about the future
of the laboratory — it was hardly certain that nu-
clear weapons testing would ever resume —
Livermore continued rapid growth. During the
moratorium, Livermore scientists pursued some
weapons design work using computers. Stimu-
lated by their desire to understand the physics of
nuclear explosions, weapons designers devel-
oped increasingly complex computer models.
Livermore has become known for its efforts to
126
Chap ter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
understand many complex phenomena through
computer modeling.
During the 1 960s, the laboratory’s nuclear
weapons design program centered largely on
requirements for strategic missile systems. The
laboratory developed warheads for the second-
generation Polaris and its successor, Poseidon.
While the Air Force continued to rely heavily on
Los Alamos to develop bombs and some missile
warheads, it increasingly assigned warhead devel-
opment for its intercontinental ballistic missiles,
notably Minuteman, to Livermore. By the end of
the decade, most of the warheads in the Na-
tion’s strategic nuclear weapons stockpile were
Livermore designs. Livermore also designed sev-
eral tactical weapons systems for the Army,
among them short-range Lance missiles, ground-
launched cruise missiles, and nuclear artillery.
Initially focused on large-scale earthmoving, or
nuclear excavation, the Plowshare project — the
peaceful nuclear explosives program — became
one of Livermore’s major programs through the
1 960s. The 1 963 test ban treaty and technical
difficulties, however, derailed plans to use nu-
clear explosives to excavate a new Atlantic-Pa-
cific canal through Central America. A reori-
ented program focused on using nuclear explo-
sives to free natural gas from rock formations,
but ambiguous experimental results and the en-
vironmental legislation of the late 1960s spelled
the end of Plowshare.
Livermore has become known for its
efforts to understand many complex phe-
nomena through computer modeling.
In June 1971, Livermore became independent
from Berkeley. Responding in part to campus
protest, the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory di-
vided into the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory and
the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, with
Livermore continuing its nuclear weapons activity
and Berkeley focusing on unclassified research. In
1 980, Congress gave the laboratory a new name:
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.
By the mid 1 970s, Livermore had become a cen-
ter for agency fusion research. The invention of
the laser offered a potential avenue toward the
goal of controlled fusion. For Livermore, laser
fusion had an additional advantage: laser-gener-
ated thermonuclear microexplosions allowed ac-
cess to new kinds of weapons physics study. Be-
ginning in the early 1970s, the Laboratory devel-
oped a series of neodymium-glass lasers, each
more powerful than its predecessor.
Site Human Radiation Experiments
Livermore was the site of few known human
radiation experiments. To date, three human
experiments have been identified at this site. In
1963, a biomedical division was established at
Livermore, headed by John Gofman, formerly of
the Berkeley laboratory. This was consistent
with the agency’s decision to expand biomedical
research activities into hazards of radioactive
fallout. The AEC and the laboratory also wanted
the Livermore unit to characterize the radioac-
tive hazards that might arise from Project Plow-
share. Livermore biomedical program personnel
engaged in human radiation experiments during
the early 1 970s. Two of the Livermore human
radiation experiments were designed to calibrate
a biomedical research instrument, the whole
body counter. The third involved the use of ra-
dioisotopes to study decompression sickness.
Individual site experiments are detailed in Chap-
ter 3.
Figure 29. A conventional whole body counter (circa 1964).
127
Human Radiation E xperiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
Site Records Collections
Livermore’s known involvement in human ex-
perimentation is limited, as is the material thus
far found. Many records collections that contain
information pertinent to human radiation experi-
ments have been consolidated into artificial
groups. The series descriptions reflect
Livermore’s limited intellectual control over its
records in contrast to the other laboratories run
by the University of California. Although none of
the series described here contain classified re-
cords, it should be noted that the facility itself is
classified; access is difficult and must always be
arranged in advance. One important group,
which did not conform to the descriptions stan-
dards of this project and is not included below,
is a 2,200-cubic-foot collection of laboratory
historical records in the custody of the Labora-
tory historian. Livermore does have an archival
facility, but has not traditionally used it to pro-
vide extensive material to the public.
128
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL)
SERIES TITLE Director’s Office Classified and Sensitive Program Administrative Fites
INCLUSIVE DATES 1979-present
ARRANGEMENT Alphabetical by subject
VOLUME 348 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This record series functions as record of accomplishments, and provides background
information as a basis for evaluating alternatives, as well as providing documentation
of the actions taken by the Director’s Office and the Laboratory. It is used for refer-
ence, documentation and tracking activities and consists of budget files, personnel
awards, contracts, reviews, logs, correspondence, memorandums, photographs,
travel files, and videos. Includes are mail logs, UC Contract 48, incoming and outgo-
ing DOE and UC correspondence, and UC Regents Meeting Minutes.
LOCATION OF Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
RECORDS Records Management Group
7000 East Avenue, L-511 (Vault)
Livermore, CA 94550
SERIES TITLE Laboratory Counsel’s Legal Subject Files
inclusive DATES 1 970-present
ARRANGEMENT Alphabetical by subject
VOLUME 75 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents the Laboratory Counsel’s legal and administrative functions.
The records delineate the role of the Laboratory Counsel in dealing with a wide range
of issues having to do both with internal laboratory personnel, equipment, procedures
and policies as well as with external institutions and individuals. These records con-
sists of correspondence; memorandums; reports; policies and procedures; opinions;
and research materials. Subjects in this record series include Safeguards and Secu-
rity, Drug Testing files, Human Subject files, and Health Services files.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Building 253, Room 1717
Berkeley, CA 94720
129
Human Radiation Experime nt s: The DOE Ro adm ap Co the Story and the R ecords
SERIES TITLE Institutional Review Board Meeting Minutes
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 975-1 994
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 4 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series consists of the minutes which are the collected notes of the proceedings
of the Institutional Review Board (IRB). The IRB is the LLNL entity that has the re-
sponsibility for reviewing and approving requests for the use of humans as subjects
in experiments or research activities. Records for each protocol describe the involve-
ment of human subjects and the risks, if any, to which they are exposed. The minutes
include the meeting date; location; members present; matters considered, including
old business, new business, and minutes approval; and the record of votes taken as
to whether the protocol being discussed should be approved. Related documents are
attached to the minutes. The official copies of the minutes are maintained in hard
copy by the Secretary to the Chairman of the IRB. A database of the minutes also
provides summary information for the following categories: meeting date, IRB Project
Number, title of project discussed at the IRB meeting, name of researcher, status of
action, result (indicates whether or not the project was approved), and comments on
whether or not the protocol was used subsequent to its approval. Three protocols
involve experiments in which consenting human subjects were intentionally exposed
to radiation.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Building 361, Room 1134, 1 c.f.; Room 1063, 3 c.f.
Berkeley, CA 94720
SERIES TITLE Institutional Review Board Protocol Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 972-1 994
ARRANGEMENT Active and inactive files; thereunder alphabetical by principal investigator
VOLUME 3 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series contains documentation of requests to use human subjects in scientific
experiments which are submitted to the LLNL Institutional Review Board (IRB) in the
form of protocols. Records for each protocol describe the involvement of human sub-
jects and the risks, if any, to which they are exposed. The protocols are reviewed and
discussed by the IRB and approved or rejected. The types of documents found in this
collection include project summary sheets, consent forms, and correspondence and
memorandums. The series contains one file folder entitled “Research on Human Sub-
jects, 1972-1984,” which contains University of California memorandums and corre-
spondence.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Building 361, Room 1134 and 1063
Berkeley, CA 94720
130
Cha pter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
SERIES TITLE Project Administration Records for Human Subject Experiments
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 978-1 990
ARRANGEMENT None
VOLUME approximately 1.5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION Records in this series document the work of the Whole Body Counter (WBC) staff in
conjunction with: three phantom validation studies using niobium-92m (Nb 92m ) to
simulate inhaled plutonium; related studies using barium and strontium; and project
administration records, including interaction with the LLNL Institutional Review Board
(IRB). Subjects included in the collection are lung calibration/validation using the LLNL
Humanoid lung, assistance with a British program to establish changes in lung coun-
ter calibration for Nb 92m , the use of BsP and Sr 85 in tests conducted with a small
number of human subjects, discussion of issues relating to use of human subjects,
and request to Human Subjects Committee to allow participation of LLNL employees
in the niobium inhalation study. Types of records in this series include memorandums,
correspondence, journal articles, reports, raw scientific data, messages, handwritten
notes, and photos. The series also includes a collective group of calibration data
relating to the three validation studies, and the studies done with Ba 133 and Sr 85 . For
these same studies, raw scientific data is stored on magnetic disks, which is not
readily accessible under current Whole Body Counter computer systems. The con-
tents of this series are more fully described in the following subseries which are
interfiled together: Subject Files for Inhalation Study Using 5-Micron-Diameter
Niobium-92m; Subject Files for Inhalation Study Using 3.5-Micron-Diameter Niobium-
92m; and Records Relating to the Counting of Human Subjects Using Niobium-92m,
Ba 133 , and Sr 85 (IRB No. 88-101).
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Building 253, Room 1719
Berkeley, CA 94720
(Raw data is on magnetic tape; and calibration records are stored in the Control
Room.)
131
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap Co the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Project Administration Records: Subject Files for Inhalation Study
Using 5-Micron-Diameter Niobium-92m
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 979-1 982
ARRANGEMENT Alphabetical by subject name
VOLUME approximately 0.5 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION This series contains files for human subjects who participated in a study by the Whole
Body Counter staff. The phantom validation study involved eight male subjects, five
British and three American, who inhaled 5-micron-diameter niobium-92m. The study
was initiated by the United Kingdom to evaluate the Humanoid phantom as a calibration
tool for measuring plutonium in the lungs and was approved by review boards in the
U.K. and U.S. After inhalation, subjects visited several laboratories for “counting.” Re-
cords for individual subjects are maintained in notebooks. Typical record types in the
series include forms, raw data, photos, and lung clearance graphs. This series is inter-
filed with Project Administration records and records of the other two validation studies.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Building 253, Room 1719
Berkeley, CA 94720
(Raw data is on magnetic tape; calibration records are stored in the Control Room.)
132
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
SERIES TITLE Project Administration Records: Subject Files for Inhalation Study
Using 3.5-Micron-Diameter Niobium-92m
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 983-1 985
ARRANGEMENT Alphabetical by subject name
VOLUME approximately 0.5 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION This series contains files for human subjects who participated in a study by the Whole
Body Counter staff. This series contains records of the second validation study, which
involved 11 women who inhaled 3.5-micron-diameter niobium-92m-labeled micro-
spheres to determine the suitability of the Humanoid phantom as a lung calibration
medium for females. Subject files in this series were created by the Whole Body
Counter staff in conjunction with their work on this study. The study was initiated by
the United Kingdom to evaluate the Humanoid phantom as a calibration tool for mea-
suring plutonium in the lungs and was approved by review boards in the U.K. and U.S.
After inhalation, subjects visited several laboratories for “counting.” Records for indi-
vidual subjects are maintained in notebooks. The notebooks contain personal infor-
mation about the subjects, biometric data and x-ray counts, and correspondence.
Files contain records types such as photos, lung clearance graphs, raw data, hand-
written notes, and charts. This series is interfiled with Project Administration records
and records of the other two validation studies.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Building 253, Room 1719
Berkeley, CA 94720
(Raw data is on magnetic tape; calibration records are stored in the Control Room.)
133
Human Radiatio n Experiments: The D OE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Project Administration Records: Records Relating to the Counting
°' Human Sub i ects Using Nioblum-92m, Barium-133, and Strontium^
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 988-1 990
ARRANGEMENT Alphabetical by subject name
VOLUME approximately 0.5 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION This series (IRB No. 88-01) contains records of a third validation study where five of
the original eight male participants inhaled niobium and of studies where two subjects
were injected with Ba 133 and Sr 85 . The files for the niobium study pertain to subjects
such as detector geometry, visits by foreign nationals, personal information on individ-
ual subjects, biometric data for the subject, and x-ray counts. Types of documents
included are copies of the “Experimental Subject's Bill of Rights,” signed consent
forms, photos, tables, graphs, test results, and memorandums. The five British volun-
teers were also participants in the first study, so some folders for individual subjects
may contain information from both the first and the third validation study. This series
also contains subject file information for individual subjects who participate in studies
relating to the use of Ba 133 and Sr 85 . Two subjects received an injection of barium, and
one of these subjects later received an additional administration of strontium. Some
personal and medical information is available for subjects involved in these two stud-
ies. This series is interfiled with Project Administration records and records of the
other two validation studies.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Building 253, Room 1719
Berkeley, CA 94720
(Raw data is on magnetic tape; calibration records are stored in the Control
Room.)
134
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
SERIES TITLE Records Relating to Interlaboratory Comparison of Human Subjects
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 972-1 976
ARRANGEMENT None
VOLUME 1.5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series contains information on the inter-laboratory comparison of three British
subjects (all male) who inhaled palladium-103 (as a “mock” plutonium) and chromium-
51. Subjects were counted by at least eight laboratories in the U.S., including LLNL.
The overall purpose of this experiment was to improve methods of in vivo bioassay
for accidentally inhaled long-lived isotopes. An additional purpose was to establish
analyses capabilities on an international level. The experiment was especially notable
as there had been a significant problem in conducting accurate external measuring
of heavy elements, particularly plutonium, in the human lung. The series documents
the experiments and the measurement of the human subjects, which took place
1972-1976. Most of the series is comprised of scientific data relating to measure-
ments taken on the subjects at LLNL and to subsequent analyses. Type of records
included in the series are calibration data, tables, graphs, charts, handwritten notes,
correspondence, memorandums, reports, draft reports, and technical reference
material. The correspondence, in part, represents a discussion with other laboratories
about the importance and uniqueness of this experiment.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Building 253, Room 1717
Berkeley, CA 94720
SERIES TITLE Records Relating to Proposed Technetium-99 Counting Program
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 975-1 976
ARRANGEMENT None
VOLUME 0.3 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION The purpose of this proposed experiment was to study the use of technetium-99 to
simulate inhaled plutonium-239 aerosol in the lungs. The series contains information
such as discussions between LLNL and LBL about the project, including the develop-
ment of protocols for the experiment, a statement that all 15 adult volunteers would
be from LLNL or LBL, and preparation of operating safety procedures that would
incorporate protocols for the experiment. Types of records in the collection include
raw data, correspondence, and memorandums. This experiment was never carried
out.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Building 253, Room 1717
Berkeley, CA 94720
135
Hum an Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the St ory and th e R ecords
Los Alamos National Laboratory
The Site Today
Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) is
a multiprogram facility whose original mission
was nuclear weapons research, development,
and testing. Current laboratory work includes
nuclear weapons safety, nonproliferation and
counterproliferation, and environmental restora-
tion. Los Alamos also provides technical assis-
tance and basic research including energy and
environmental technologies. In addition, the Lab-
oratory possesses extensive capabilities in high-
performance computing and human genome
studies.
Los Alamos operates 20 major research facili-
ties, among them the Clinton P. Anderson Me-
son Physics Facility, the National Genetic Se-
quences Data Bank, the Ion Beam Materials labo-
ratory, the Weapon Neutron Research Facility,
and a Center for Human Genome Studies. The
University of California manages the laboratory,
which employs over 7,500 individuals and has a
budget of about $ I billion.
Site History
The Manhattan Project established Los
Alamos — originally known as Project Y — under
the University of California in 1943 to design
and build a fission bomb. Although staff and
equipment were in place by the summer of
1943, production of fissionable material at Oak
Ridge and Hanford proved slower than hoped,
limiting Oppenheimer and his staff to work with
small quantities. Only in mid- 1 945 was enough
fissionable material available to build the first
two bombs, Fat Man and Little Boy.
Oppenheimer originally organized the laboratory
into four technical divisions, each headed by a
division leader: Theoretical Physics (T), Experi-
mental Physics (P), Chemistry and Metallurgy
(CM), and Engineering Ordnance (E). Each divi-
sion contained several specialized groups, each
group headed by a group leader. While individ-
ual scientists and group leaders had access to
Oppenheimer, reporting was normally made to a
division leader. These individuals, in turn, re-
ported either to Oppenheimer or to commit-
tees created to monitor specific work, such as
the “Cowpuncher Committee” created to “ride
herd” on the implosion (Fat Man) design.
Oppenheimer also created an Administrative
Division (A) for such activities as health, pro-
curement, and patents. The first health group,
A-6, was headed by Louis Hempelmann.
Hempelmann, one of a few American physicians
at the time with knowledge of radiation, came to
Los Alamos from Washington University in St.
Louis. He had worked with noted radiation bio-
medical scientists John Lawrence and Robert
Stone and had served as a staff physician at the
Malinckrodt Institute at Washington University.
Only in mid- 1945 was enough fissionable
material available to build the first two
bombs , Fat Man and Little Boy.
The initial tasks of the Health Group were to de-
fine occupational health standards for special haz-
ards and to monitor for radiation exposures. Al-
though biological and physical research on health
problems related to radioactive materials had
been assigned elsewhere in the Manhattan Pro-
ject, Hempelmann and Oppenheimer found that
they could not always get the precise information
they felt was needed. Consequently, Los Alamos
undertook some health-related activities.
Since very little fissionable material was available
during the first year of operations, the earliest
work of the Health Group centered on the haz-
ards related to accelerators and small sources of
radioactive materials. In the spring of 1 944, larger
quantities of plutonium began arriving, generating
increased health concerns. Hempelmann and his
staff were entering new territory, since the only
accepted standards for radiation exposure had
been set in 1 928 and were based on the health
effects of radium. By August 1 944, the Health
Group were investigating biological methods for
testing exposures to radioactive poisons.
Acting with the concurrence of Oppenheimer,
Hempelmann urged the Manhattan Project to
undertake human experiments to measure the
excretion patterns of plutonium. Such experi-
mentation became feasible when a young
136
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Los Alamos Nat ional Lab o rato ry
chemist, Wright Langham (Figure 30), developed
a method of measuring small amounts of
plutonium in excreta. Subsequent studies by the
Manhattan Project were undertaken to establish
the excretion and retention rates of plutonium
in the human body. Such information was
needed to estimate internal uptake of plutonium
in workers. Langham’s method became the stan-
dard for making such measurements for the next
two decades.
Figure 30. Wright Langham (/eft) introduces the “plastic man” to
Los Alamos Director Norris Bradbury. The figure was used to
simulate human radiation exposures.
After the first Soviet nuclear detonation, Presi-
dent Truman ordered the AEC to develop a
thermonuclear bomb. Los Alamos scientists pro-
duced the first workable design, which culmi-
nated as the 1 952 Mike test at the Enewetak
Atoll in the Pacific. By the 1 960s, the U.S. pos-
sessed a large arsenal of nuclear weapons, in-
cluding gravity bombs, missile warheads, artillery
shells, atomic demolition devices, torpedo war-
heads, and antisubmarine missiles. Many nuclear
components for these systems were designed at
Los Alamos.
After the 1 963 atmospheric test ban treaty, the
Laboratory conducted nuclear underground
weapons tests. In addition, the Laboratory de-
signed systems for satellites that could detect
nuclear tests conducted in violating the agree-
ment. The test ban negotiations also led the Lab-
oratory to undertake projects in areas outside
nuclear weapons research. One of the first such
projects, Rover, was aimed at the development
of nuclear rocket engines. Laboratory-designed
prototype rocket engines were tested in the
Jackass Flats area of the Nevada Test Site.
Los Alamos scientists also designed and oper-
ated a facility at the laboratory to evaluate the
use of molten plutonium as a reactor fuel. A
small experimental reactor was built to test fuel
that might be used in a commercial high-temper-
ature, gas-cooled reactor. In addition, work was
done on the design of small reactors that might
be used to power satellites.
Hempelmann and his staff were entering
new territory, since the only accepted
standards for radiation exposure had
been set in 1928 and were based on the
health effects of radium.
Later, the Laboratory was selected as the site for
an accelerator, subsequently called the Clinton P.
Anderson Meson Physics Facility, which could be
used for basic nuclear research. With the end of
the Cold War, the Laboratory shifted its research
emphasis to such areas as stockpile stewardship,
high-performance computing, and environmental
remediation. Los Alamos is also transferring tech-
nology to private industry.
Site Human Radiation Experiments
In the autumn of 1945, changes were made to
the Laboratory’s organizational structure. In Oc-
tober 1945, Norris Bradbury became Director.
In an effort to shape the Laboratory’s structure
to the postwar environment, Bradbury immedi-
ately altered the composition and charters of
many divisions and groups. The health group and
its functions remained intact. The group designa-
tion of A-6, however, was changed to A- 10 in
December 1945. The Group Leader continued
to report directly to the Laboratory Director,
the only group leader to do so. After Bradbury’s
organizational changes, the Laboratory’s
137
Human Radiation Experi ments : The DOE Roadmap to the Story and t he Reco rds
structure remained essentially the same for the
rest of his Directorship, which lasted until 1 970.
During 1945 and into 1946, Langham and others
were deeply involved in analyzing samples ob-
tained from the plutonium injection experi-
ments. (See the Human Plutonium Injection Ex-
periments narrative.)
During the latter half of 1945 and into
1946 , Langham and others were deeply
involved in analyzing samples obtained
from the plutonium injection experi-
ments.
Hempelmann relinquished his role as Health
Group leader in 1946, to serve as a consultant
to the Crossroads nuclear test in the Pacific.
Shortly after these tests, the Manhattan Project
passed its nuclear responsibilities on to the
newly created AEC. The Interim Medical Com-
mittee of the AEC inherited the biomedical com-
ponent of the Manhattan Project and saw a con-
tinuing need for clinical testing of radioactive
materials with human subjects. Los Alamos was
involved in these efforts.
In August 1 945, the first of three fatal criticality
accidents at the Laboratory occurred when a
physicist dropped a tungsten carbide brick, caus-
ing an assembly experiment to become criti-
cal — that is, to begin a chain reaction. He died
shortly afterward. The second accident occurred
less than a year later. An individual received a
lethal dose of ionizing radiation when his screw-
driver slipped and two pieces of reflector came
together. While they were not human experi-
ment subjects, these individuals were carefully
monitored after their exposures. The accidents
provided some of the earliest data regarding
high-dose radiation effects.
Group A- 10 provided the basis for a new Health
Division (H) in May 1 947. The new division had
responsibility for a much broader range of health
activities, including radiological safety, health phys-
ics, and industrial health. The H division also mon-
itored exposures and was responsible for safety
for all weapons tests conducted by the Labora-
tory. The research functions of A- 10 became the
responsibility of a new group, H—4 (Radiobiology),
under the direction of Wright Langham. During
the late 1 940s and early 1 950s, research with hu-
man subjects at Los Alamos was limited to tritium
studies. The human subjects were researchers in
Group H—4. In 1949, the group’s name was
changed from Radiobiology to Bio-Medical Re-
search. Wright Langham headed this group from
1947 until his death in 1972. At the time of
Langham’s death, H—4 had grown to 70 staff
members working in molecular radiobiology, cel-
lular radiobiology, mammalian biology, biophysics,
and veterinary biology, and pathology.
In 1 956 the nature of human studies at Los
Alamos changed dramatically when the first
whole body radiation counter became opera-
tional. The sensitivity and noninvasiveness of this
radiation counter made possible studies at levels
10 to 100 times below established limits of ex-
posures. Using this new capability, tracer stud-
ies — research involving small amounts of radio-
active substances that could be tracked in the
body with instruments — were conducted at Los
Alamos from 1956 through the 1960s. The sub-
jects used in this research included Laboratory
employees and their family members, as well as
hospital patients. The patients were referred by
attending physicians at the local hospital.
Using this new capability, tracer studies —
research involving small amounts of radio-
active substances that could be tracked in
the body with instruments — were con-
ducted at Los Alamos from 1956 through
the 1960s.
A July 1956 memorandum from Health Division
Leader Thomas Shipman enunciated “guiding
principles and limiting rules” for human tracer
studies. These rules, developed with guidance
from the AEC Division of Biology and Medicine,
stated that “[all] subjects will be bona fide volun-
teers who are fully informed as to the procedure
to be carried out.” The memo did not require
that written consent be obtained from the sub-
jects, but did call for written approval from the
Health Division Leader, and to be based on a
statement of the maximum dose to be adminis-
tered. It further provided that all doses be given
by a licensed physician.
138
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Los Alamos National Laboratory
assess the danger of fallout from open-air weap-
ons testing. The ratio of radioactive iodine in
eight children was measured to obtain accurate
uptake and retention data as a benchmark for
measuring thyroid doses from fallout. This study
also improved counting methods for diagnostic
uptake studies and provided data that enhanced
knowledge about the thyroid gland. One of the
last human studies conducted at Los Alamos
took place in 1 962 when cobalt tracers were
used for diagnosing pernicious anemia. Site ex-
periments are detailed in Chapter 3.
In December 1958 , a Laboratory techni-
cian received a lethal dose of radiation
when a plutonium recovery process acci-
dentally went critical.
The last of the fatal criticality accidents at Los
Alamos occurred in December 1 958. A Labora-
tory technician received a lethal dose of radia-
tion when a plutonium recovery process acci-
dentally went critical. As in the previous cases,
the course of the technician’s condition was
closely followed. His death also led to the estab-
lishment of the Los Alamos Human Tissue Anal-
ysis Project. Between 1 959 and 1 978, the Labo-
ratory analyzed tissues of workers exposed to
actinides (the group of radioactive chemicals
between 89 and 1 03 on the table of elements),
as well as tissues from the general population of
the Nation. The successor to this program, now
known as the Transuranium Registry, is cur-
rently run by Washington State University under
a DOE grant.
After the National Institutes of Health adopted
procedures for medical studies in 1966, the AEC
began changing to a committee system for ap-
proval of medical research projects. The Univer-
sity of California also responded, calling for for-
malized procedures for such research. In 1971,
Los Alamos established a Human Use Review
Committee to oversee such research. By the
mid 1970s, medical research at Los Alamos had
entered an era where committees, not individu-
als, would shape research projects.
Figure 3 1 . A whole body radiation counter at Los Alamos (circa
1958 ).
Among the tracer studies accomplished with the
whole-body counter were iron absorption stud-
ies involving children and pregnant women. This
study disproved the theory that intestinal ab-
sorption of iron is correlated with iron levels in
the blood. Another of the tracer studies con-
ducted in the late 1950s helped researchers
139
H uman Radiation Experiment s: The DOE Ro admap to the S to ry and the Records
Site Records Collections
Practically all Laboratory records remain on site.
Of these, the inactive records are well orga-
nized, controlled, and stored. Most inactive re-
cords are maintained in the Laboratory’s records
center and archives building. Custody of the in-
active files in the records center and archives is
divided between records managers and archi-
vists. Both staffs make documentation from col-
lections available to researchers and maintain
folder title listings to collections.
Figure 32. A counter being used at Los Alamos to measure pluto-
nium in the lung.
The Laboratory has maintained a records man-
agement program since 1943 and an archival
program since 1 982. The completeness of the
Laboratory’s inactive records and the degree of
intellectual control over them reflect a significant
investment of resources in preserving its older
records. Consistent with the Laboratory’s pri-
mary mission of nuclear weapon research, Labo-
ratory records collections contain many classi-
fied documents. Some records are also closed
because of Privacy Act restrictions. The Labora-
tory states that all its documents relating to hu-
man radiation experiments either are unclassi-
fied or have been declassified. These documents
are maintained in a public reading room.
As noted, the series described below contain
documentation pertinent both to individual ex-
periments themselves and to the site institu-
tional milieu in which they took place. For the
institutional framework, researchers will find the
Laboratory Director’s files especially useful. Re-
searchers should note that the Laboratory Direc-
tor’s files on microfilm do not duplicate those on
paper. Records about individual human radiation
experiments can be found in most of the other
series.
Practically all Laboratory records remain
onsite. Of these, the inactive records are
well organized, controlled, and stored.
In response to research interests of the Advi-
sory Committee on Human Radiation Experi-
ments, Los Alamos staff also reviewed and pro-
vided some documents residing in the records of
the Los Alamos Test Division (J-Division). Some
series descriptions are therefore included for
those records, although the Laboratory states
that these series do not contain material about
human subject research.
140
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Los Alamos National Laboratory
Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL)
SERIES TITLE Project Y (MED Era Director's Office & Lab Management) Records
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 942-1 946
ARRANGEMENT War Department Dewey Decimal Filing System
VOLUME 33 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These files document the founding of the Los Alamos National Laboratory and its
subsequent work to develop fission bombs for use in WWII. These files contain some
information on the biological effects of uranium-235 and plutonium-240, the earliest
known references to the possibility of human experimentation by the Manhattan
Engineer District, and the creation of RaLa Testing Program. These records were
compiled by the Laboratory during WWII as the primary documentation of the Labora-
tories’ wartime activities. As such they document technical, administrative, and policy
decisions related to the development of the first nuclear bombs. The Project Y files
consist of technical and administrative files of memorandums, letters, and reports.
They are organized by major organizational units of the Laboratory. A folder title listing
is available. Collection number A-84-019.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and classified information.
LOCATION OF Los Alamos National Laboratory
RECORDS Building 1001
PO Box 1663
Los Alamos, NM 87545
141
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Director's Office & Laboratory Management Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 945-1 970
ARRANGEMENT War Department Dewey Decimal Filing System
VOLUME 260 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These records document laboratory management, administration, and director’s policy
decisions. The series consists of the office files of the second Director of Los Alamos,
Norris Bradbury. The Director’s files contain staff papers, progress reports, correspon-
dence, and meeting minutes of all major lab work conducted during this period. They
contain documentation of all major laboratory programs including RaLa, Rover, and
weapons tests. Moreover they include administrative correspondence regarding day
to day operations, policy decision making, and other correspondence. They consist
of correspondence files of memorandums, letters, reports, and data. A folder title
listing is available. The collection is known as B-9.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and classified information.
LOCATION OF Los Alamos National Laboratory
RECORDS Building 1001
PO Box 1663
Los Alamos, NM 87545
SERIES TITLE Director’s Office & Laboratory Management Files (microfilm)
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 945-1 970
ARRANGEMENT War Department Dewey Decimal Filing System
VOLUME 10 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The documents captured on microfilm do not duplicate the Director’s office series of
textual files. These records document laboratory, management, administration, and
Director’s policy decisions. These files were the office files of the second Director of
Los Alamos, Norris Bradbury. The microfilm Director’s files contain staff papers,
progress reports, correspondence, and meeting minutes of all major laboratory work.
They include documentation on Project Sunshine and RaLa tests. The series consists
of technical and administrative files of memorandums, letters, reports, and data. A
folder title listing is available. The collection is known as B-9 microfilm.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and classified information.
LOCATION OF Los Alamos National Laboratory
RECORDS Building 1001
PO Box 1663
Los Alamos, NM 87545
142
Chapter 2, Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Los Alamos National Laboratory
SERIES TITLE Robert Underhill Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 943-1 978
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 6 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These files were kept by Robert Underhill, Secretary to the University of California
Board of Regents, and contain information on the operation of Los Alamos, particu-
larly its administration. The files are most useful for documenting the contractual
relationship of the University of California to the Government for operating the labora-
tory. They include information on laboratory overtime pay, insurance matters, hazard-
ous work, and other administrative matters. The Robert Underhill records consist of
contracts, correspondence, memorandums, and reports. A folder title listing is avail-
able. Collection number A-83-033.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Los Alamos National Laboratory
RECORDS Building 1001
PO Box 1663
Los Alamos, NM 87545
SERIES TITLE Records of CMB-DO (Chemistry-Metallurgy-Baker Division Offices)
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 956-1 969
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 16 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series consists of the monthly progress reports of the CMB-DO. The reports
document chemical and metallurgical research at Los Alamos, including the metallur-
gical research of plutonium. These reports also include abstracts of research initia-
tives and data. Progress reports for the 1950s contain information on fabricating RaLa
sources. A folder title listing is available. Collection number A-89-068.
RESTRICTIONS This series is entirely classified.
LOCATION OF Los Alamos National Laboratory
RECORDS Building 1001
PO Box 1663
Los Alamos, NM 87545
143
Human Radiation Exp e riments: The DOE Road map to the S tory and the Records
SERIES TITLE GMX-5 (Dynamic Weapons Testing Division), RaLa (Radiolanthanum) Groups
Test Records
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 944-1 963
ARRANGEMENT Topical subseries
VOLUME 2 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These files document the work of the laboratory organization responsible for planning
and carrying out the RaLa experiments at Bayo Canyon, near Los Alamos. The re-
cords in this series document many of the RaLa experiments, including information
on experimental design and data analysis. The series includes correspondence,
reports, photographs, and meeting minutes. A folder title listing is available. Collection
number A-84-018.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains classified information.
LOCATION OF Los Alamos National Laboratory
RECORDS Building 1001
PO Box 1663
Los Alamos, NM 87545
SERIES TITLE Health Division Central Administrative Records
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 943-1 979
ARRANGEMENT Subject
Chronological
VOLUME 100 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series contains the administrative files of the Laboratory’s Health Division. These
files were generated and kept as the division monitored the health and safety of
laboratory workers. They also capture the division’s involvement in decision making
in matters concerning possible exposure to radioactive materials, health and safety
aspects of the RaLa program, and biological work of Group H-4. The records of the
Health Division consist of organizational charts, reports, contracts, questionnaires,
correspondence, memorandums, and progress reports. A folder title listing is avail-
able. Collection numbers A-89-118, TR-6704, TR-1133.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and classified information.
LOCATION OF Los Alamos National Laboratory
RECORDS Building 1001
PO Box 1663
Los Alamos, NM 87545
144
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Los Alamos National Laboratory
SERIES TITLE H-4 (Bio-Medical Research Subdivision of Health Division)
Central Administrative Records
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 953-1 955
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 1 .5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These files document the work of the biomedical research group at Los Alamos. As
such, they are similar to the records in the Wright Langham Papers. These files
include policy decisions and basic correspondence. They contain information on a
criticality fatality, gamma radiation, iodine-131, beta radiation, and tracer studies. They
consist of memorandums, correspondence, and reports. A folder title listing is avail-
able. Collection number A-92-096.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and classified information.
LOCATION OF Los Alamos National Laboratory
RECORDS Building 1001
PO Box 1663
Los Alamos, NM 87545
SERIES TITLE Bio-Medical Research Group, Wright Langham Papers
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 950-1 97 1
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 1 .5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These records document the activities of Wright Langham and were created during
his tenure as leader of the Biomedical Research Group. They contain documentation
on the organization and technical work of the group, including animal studies and the
Cecil Kelley accident. These files contain information related to Langham’s research
interest in gamma radiation and his leadership of a multidiscipline biomedical re-
search group. However they are not as extensive as the H-4 subdivision records. The
Wright Langham Papers consist of correspondence, memorandums, and reports on
health research, particularly gamma radiation. A folder title listing is available. Collec-
tion number A-92-095.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and classified information.
LOCATION OF Los Alamos National Laboratory
RECORDS Building 1001
PO Box 1663
Los Alamos, NM 87545
145
Hu man Radiation Experiments: The DOE R oadmap to the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Records of J-Division (Weapons Testing), Central Administrative Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 946-1 963
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 57 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These files contain the administrative and technical records of the Laboratory organi-
zation responsible for planning and carrying out nuclear weapons tests. The test
division files contain extensive information on each weapons test from Operation
Crossroads to Dominic and some information on the Geneva Conference on limiting
nuclear weapons testing. The series may contain information on human testing done
at nuclear weapons tests. The series contains planning papers, meeting minutes,
correspondence, diagrams, and reports. A folder title listing is available. Collection
number A-91-048.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and classified information.
LOCATION OF Los Alamos National Laboratory
RECORDS Building 1001
PO Box 1663
Los Alamos, NM 87545
SERIES TITLE Records of N-Division (Nuclear Rocket Propulsion Division),
Rover Program Central Administrative Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 956-1 975
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 40 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents the central administration of N-Division’s Rover Program,
including the policies, organization, and activities regarding the program. The records
in it document work on the Kiwi reactor, the Nevada Test Site, space and nuclear
propulsion, and the Laboratory Rover Committee. It also includes studies on the
dispersion of radioactive particles that might occur if a nuclear rocket accidentally
reentered the earth’s atmosphere and disintegrated, and of the transit time of large
radioactive particles through the human gastrointestinal tract. The series consists of
reports, correspondence, memorandums, technical data, and meeting minutes. A
folder title listing is available. Collection numbers A-86-017, A-88-007, A-89-083,
A-93-003, A-93-070, A-94-020.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains classified information.
LOCATION OF Los Alamos National Laboratory
RECORDS Building 1001
PO Box 1663
Los Alamos, NM 87545
146
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — institutional Areas: Los Alamos National Laboratory
SERIES TITLE Medium Energy Physics Division, Central File Records
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 965-1 987
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 90 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series contains the technical and administrative records of the Medium Energy
Physics Division, which conducted basic physics research in collaboration with univer-
sities throughout the world. Most of the collection deals with basic physics research,
however, some information on biomedical research, particularly a pion therapy pro-
gram is included. Pion therapy was a treatment at the Los Alamos Mason Physics
Facility (LAMPF) using subatomic particles called pions to treat 225 cancer patients
between 1 974-1 981 . The series contains project proposals, construction records, and
biomedical research records. A folder title listing is available. Collection number
A-91-011.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Los Alamos National Laboratory
RECORDS Building 1001
PO Box 1663
Los Alamos, NM 87545
SERIES TITLE Technical Information Group Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 945-1 959
ARRANGEMENT Topical subseries
VOLUME 2 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series documents the dissemination of information to the public. It includes
information on the 1958 criticality accident in which laboratory technician Cecil Kelley
was killed. The series contains news releases, reference material, news clippings,
and information on special projects. A folder title listing is available. Collection number
A-83-005.
LOCATION OF Los Alamos National Laboratory
RECORDS Building 1001
PO Box 1663
Los Alamos, NM 87545
147
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Laboratory Progress Reports
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 945-1 975
ARRANGEMENT
VOLUME
Laboratory Organizational Units
100 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The Laboratory Progress Reports consist of the formal reports written monthly by the
laboratory’s technical divisions and groups. They contain summary information and
technical information on laboratory work such as that in physics, chemistry, and
metallurgy. A listing is available. Collection number A-86-01 6.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and classified information.
LOCATION OF Los Alamos National Laboratory
RECORDS Building 1001
PO Box 1663
Los Alamos, NM 87545
SERIES TITLE Reports Collection
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 943-1 994
ARRANGEMENT Chronological, by report number
VOLUME 7,000 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These reports document all of the technical work of the Laboratory. Within these
reports, there is documentation of various experiments, (e.g., the plutonium injection
experiments, tracer studies, releases, weapons testing). Since 1943, the Laboratory
has maintained a central repository for technical reports. The series contains annual
and quarterly progress reports as well as those on specific experiments. A listing is
available.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and classified information.
LOCATION OF Los Alamos National Laboratory
RECORDS Building 207
PO Box 1663
Los Alamos, NM 87545
148
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Los Alamos National Laboratory
SERIES TITLE Laboratory Notebooks
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 942-1 990
ARRANGEMENT Numeric
Sequential
VOLUME 1 ,500 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The Laboratory Notebooks consist of hardbound notebooks used by the scientific staff
to record experimental and technical data. Each notebook was assigned to an individ-
ual scientist. The notebooks contain experimental data, calculations, and sketches of
equipment and apparatus. They include experimental information including data
related to early human plutonium studies, tracer studies, and RaLa research. A listing
is available.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and classified information.
LOCATION OF Los Alamos National Laboratory
RECORDS Building 1001
PO Box 1663
Los Alamos, NM 87545
SERIES TITLE Litigation Support Database
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 943-1 994
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME not applicable
DESCRIPTION The records in this series were originally collected from various Laboratory offices to
support the laboratory’s litigation efforts. Records collected document a wide range
of Laboratory activities including human studies and exposures to ionizing radiation
and toxic substances. The series consists of correspondence, memorandums, and
reports collected throughout the Laboratory to support ongoing litigation. Indices can
be generated on request.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material and attorney-client privileged information.
LOCATION OF Los Alamos National Laboratory
RECORDS Building 1001
PO Box 1663
Los Alamos, NM 87545
149
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
The Oak Ridge Sites
The Sites Today
The Oak Ridge complex consists of five major
facilities located in or near Oak Ridge, TN: the
DOE Oak Ridge Operations Office, Oak Ridge
Institute for Science and Education (ORISE), Oak
Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), K-25 site,
and Y-l 2 plant.
The Operations Office provides DOE oversight
for the other facilities, which are Government
owned and contractor operated. Oak Ridge As-
sociated Universities (ORAU) is the operating
contractor for ORISE; Martin Marietta Energy
Systems runs the remaining facilities. The Oak
Ridge sites have a combined annual budget ex-
ceeding $1 billion and employ more than 14,000
people.
ORISE conducts programs in science and engi-
neering education, training and management, and
medical sciences, including basic research in bio-
chemistry and cytogenetics. ORISE also operates
the Radiation Internal Dose Information Center,
the Center for Epidemiological Research, the Ra-
diation Emergency Assistance Center/Training
Site, and the Center for Human Reliability Studies.
ORNL focuses on basic and applied research in
energy technology and conducts research in the
physical, chemical, materials, computational, bio-
medical, earth, environmental, and social sci-
ences. The Laboratory also operates 20 major
research facilities, including the Holifield Heavy
Ion Research Facility, the Oak Ridge Linear Ac-
celerator, and the High Flux Isotope Reactor.
The K-25 site, once a gaseous diffusion plant site
for the production of uranium-235, now serves as
headquarters for the Oak Ridge Environmental
Restoration and Waste Management Office and
for the High Temperatures Materials Laboratory.
The Y-l 2 plant was originally built to produce
uranium-235 through an electromagnetic process.
Later the plant was converted to a nuclear weap-
ons component manufacturing plant and now
serves as a weapons disassembly site.
Site History
Oak Ridge Site selection — Wartime atomic
planners first looked to the Oak Ridge area dur-
ing the spring of 1 942. A site was needed to
build industrial facilities for production of pluto-
nium and uranium-235, the principal materials
required for an atomic bomb. The only produc-
tion process then known created minute
amounts of fissionable materials in experimental
laboratories. Scientists such as E.O. Lawrence of
the University of California and Arthur H.
Compton of the University of Chicago were
confident, however, that experimental tech-
niques could be translated into large-scale pro-
duction facilities. This confidence, coupled with
the Government’s urgent desire to develop an
atomic weapon, led the Manhattan Project to
launch a crash production program.
Residents of the sparsely populated area
were paid for their property and ordered
to leave within a few weeks.
The program required large parcels of land to
house sprawling plants, support facilities, and
worker communities. Another requirement for
industrial production of fissionable materials was
relative isolation, both to ensure secrecy and to
reduce danger to civilian populations. Abundant
supplies of cooling water and electricity were
also needed. The Manhattan Project determined
that a 56,000-acre tract of land in eastern Ten-
nessee met these requirements, and the Federal
government moved to acquire what became
known as the Oak Ridge reservation through
eminent domain proceedings in September 1942.
Residents of the sparsely populated area were
paid for their property and ordered to leave
within a few weeks.
General Leslie Groves and other Manhattan Pro-
ject leaders identified four potential techniques
for producing fissionable material at Oak Ridge.
The reactor (or pile) process called for a con-
trolled nuclear chain reaction to irradiate ura-
nium, which could then be chemically processed
to separate plutonium. Three processes were
considered for producing the required quantities
of weapons-grade uranium (uranium-235): elec-
tromagnetic separation, based on E.O. Law-
rence’s cyclotron research; gaseous diffusion,
based on the research of Harold Urey of Colum-
150
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — I nstitutional Areas: The Oak Ridge Sites
bia University; and liquid thermal diffusion, based
on the ideas of Philip Abelson of the Naval Re-
search Laboratory.
Figure 33. An Oak Ridge National Laboratory employee having a
blood test to detect radiation exposure (circa 1950).
Since none of the methods had been proven on
anything like the scale required, and there was
no sure basis to choose among them, Groves
pursued them all at once. This required con-
struction of four separate and unique industrial
plants, as well as the roads, housing, schools, and
other infrastructure needed to support thou-
sands of workers.
The Y-i2 Plant — By 1942, work of Ernest Law-
rence at the University of California in Berkeley
suggested that the electromagnetic process was
a feasible production method. The process was
so inefficient, however, that it would require an
enormous industrial plant to produce apprecia-
ble quantities of uranium-235. The Government
contracted with Tennessee Eastman, a subsidiary
of Eastman Kodak, to build and operate the Oak
Ridge electromagnetic plant. Construction began
on what was called Y— 12 Plant in February 1943
on a site a few miles southwest of the town of
Oak Ridge. Using 14,700 tons of silver borrowed
from the U.S. Bullion Depository to substitute
for scarce wartime copper, the plant was oper-
ating by early 1 944. Yet the many new and com-
plex machines caused electrical and mechanical
problems to plague the facility. These problems,
coupled with the success of the gaseous diffusion
process, led to the discontinuance of the elec-
tromagnetic process after the war.
The K-25 Site — As the Government moved to
acquire the Oak Ridge site, atomic planners
were confident that the gaseous diffusion pro-
duction method would succeed. The Special Al-
loy Material Laboratories at Columbia University
had proved the practical application of the tech-
nology in 1942.
Groves engaged the M.W. Kellogg Company, op-
erating as the Kellex Corporation, to design an
industrial gaseous diffusion plant, which became
known as K-25. The J.A. Jones Construction
Company contracted to build the facility, and the
Carbide and Carbon Corporation, a subsidiary of
the Union Carbide and Carbon Corporation, was
designated as the operator. Construction began
around June 1 943 at a site some 1 5 miles south-
west of the town of Oak Ridge. Initial testing
started during the spring of 1 944, and productive
operation began about a year later. A related
plant, known as K-27, was built nearby to pro-
duce slightly enriched uranium used as feed mate-
rial for the gaseous diffusion process.
Gaseous diffusion proved the best of the three
production processes. The AEC turned to this
technology when uranium-235 production ca-
pacity expanded to meet Cold War demands.
More gaseous diffusion plants were built near
K-25 and also in Paducah, KY and Portsmouth,
OH. When the AEC moved to reduce produc-
tion of fissionable material in 1964, the agency
stopped operations at the K-25 and K-27 plants
and gradually reduced operations at the remain-
ing gaseous diffusion plants. Eventually the AEC
used the plants to produce enriched uranium for
commercial nuclear power plant fuel.
The Oak Ridge National Laboratory — The Man-
hattan Project originally intended to use the Ten-
nessee site for all production work, but research
at the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago
showed that the pile process (the first nuclear
reactor technology) would generate far more
heat and radioactivity than scientists had previ-
ously believed. Consequently, the Project se-
lected the Hanford site in eastern Washington, a
much larger and even more isolated site than
Oak Ridge, for plutonium production. A pile
semiworks — a test plant that would move from
the research stage to large scale production —
was, however, built in Oak Ridge. The E.l. du
Pont de Nemours Company built the test pile
151
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
plant, designated X-IO (Figure 34). Construc-
tion of the X-IO reactor began at a site 1 0 miles
southwest of Oak Ridge during March 1943. The
reactor was ready for full-scale operations by
January 1944. The University of Chicago,
through its Met Lab, operated the plant.
Figure 34. Aerial view of the Oak Ridge X-IO facility (1945), which
served as a pilot for the Hanford plutonium production reactors.
After World War II, the facility produced isotopes for national
distribution. (PHOTO: U.S. Army)
A research facility designated as the Clinton Lab
oratories was built during the war to support
X-IO reactor activities. By 1944, Clinton Labo-
ratories had chemistry, health, and engineering
divisions. In 1947, the entire Oak Ridge com-
plex, including the Clinton Laboratories, passed
from the Manhattan Engineer District to the
newly formed Atomic Energy Commission. Sci-
entists at Clinton, meanwhile, were engaged in
transforming the laboratory from a war produc-
tion facility to a nuclear research center. Clinton
Laboratories pushed for a substantial role in
building an experimental materials testing reac-
tor. The AEC, however, assigned the project to
Argonne National Laboratory outside Chicago,
which likewise had hopes of serving as a reactor
development center. Around the same time, the
Monsanto Chemical Company announced its
withdrawal as the operating contractor for the
Oak Ridge Laboratory. That contract was trans-
ferred to the Union Carbide and Carbon Corpo-
ration, which already ran the gaseous diffusion
plants. In January 1948, the AEC changed the
name of Clinton Laboratories to Oak Ridge Na-
tional Laboratory (ORNL). ORNL scientists set
out to build a multiprogram research laboratory.
They used the X-IO reactor to produce the ra-
dioisotopes that the AEC distributed to scien-
tists and physicians worldwide. In the early
postwar years, the isotope distribution program
was the AEC’s most visible and touted “atoms
for peace” program. Researchers also conducted
homogenous reactor experiments, and worked
on a nuclear reactor to power long-range bomb-
ers. In 1946, the Laboratory divided its health
division into divisions of biology, medicine, and
health physics. Divisions of metallurgy, physics,
solid-state materials, mathematics, engineering
physics, and electronuclear projects were added
shortly afterwards. ORNL also organized units
for reactor development and fusion research.
In 1955, ORNL began to broaden its work be-
yond issues of interest to the AEC alone. By the
1 960s ORNL was the most diversified of the
AEC research laboratories. The Laboratory also
continued to engage in a wide array of AEC re-
search. The High Flux Isotope Reactor for the
production of transuranic elements was sited at
Oak Ridge. The Laboratory became the primary
technical support organization for AEC nuclear
desalting projects, directed toward the develop-
ment of reactors to supply both electric power
and desalinated sea water.
In the early postwar years , the isotope
distribution program was the Atomic En-
ergy Commission ’s most visible and
touted “atoms for peace” program.
ORNL also undertook extensive reactor safety
work, investigating fission product release from
reactor fuel elements and heavy-metal fabrica-
tion processes used to create reactor pressure
vessels. Fusion research work continued, and
the Laboratory built an experimental fusion de-
vice, the Oak Ridge Tokamak, and other experi-
mental fusion devices. The Laboratory also con-
ducted some research for the liquid-metal fast
breeder reactor program, and was chosen as the
site for the Clinch River Breeder Reactor, a pro-
ject that was ultimately canceled.
The S-50 Plant — The Manhattan Project origi-
nally planned to construct only three Oak Ridge
process plants. A fourth technology, liquid
thermal diffusion, was initially considered but
152
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: The Oak Ridge Sites
was rejected because of its apparent inefficiency.
By June 1 944, however, concerns about reaching
needed production levels for uranium-235 led to
a decision to construct a liquid thermal diffusion
plant in Oak Ridge. The primary purpose of the
plant was to enrich uranium feed material for
the Y-l 2 electromagnetic facility. Using tech-
nology employed by a Navy pilot plant at
Anacostia Station in Washington, DC, the H.K.
Ferguson Company, operating as the Fercleve
Corporation, quickly built the plant. Designated
as S-50, the facility was near the K-25 gaseous
diffusion plant. The S-50 plant operated for a
year before it was shut down in September
1945.
After the war, the US. Government was
concerned that a shortage of trained nu-
clear scientists, physicians, and other spe-
cialists could imperil plans to expand nu-
clear programs.
The Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies
(ORINS ) — After the war, the U.S. Government
was concerned that a shortage of trained nuclear
scientists, physicians, and other specialists could
imperil plans to expand nuclear programs. Many
universities were establishing instructional
courses, but rigid security requirements limited
the information that these institutions could dis-
tribute. At the same time, the Government was
Figure 35. Oak Ridge health physics technicians monitoring a
cafeteria for radiation.
eager to train practitioners in what it viewed as
the beneficial side of nuclear energy, particularly
the use of radiation for biomedical research and
treatment of disease. The Government concluded
that it needed dedicated facilities for this purpose.
The first such facility established was the Institute
of Nuclear Studies at the University of Chicago.
Inspired by the Chicago institute, in 1946 the
University of Tennessee and a consortium of
southeastern universities persuaded the MED to
establish the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear
Studies (ORINS). Operating under a Manhattan
Project (and later AEC) contract, ORINS was
responsible for selecting both students and es-
tablished scientists for fellowships and other
temporary research assignments.The ORINS
isotope training program, established in 1948,
initially offered three 4-week summer courses
covering radiation, instrumentation, tracer appli-
cations, and experimental procedures. These
courses were immediately filled with scientists
from diverse fields eager to use isotopes in their
research. The AEC mandated such training be-
fore doctors or researchers could be licensed to
use isotopes.
The hospital operated until 1974, when it
and the other Atomic Energy Commission
research hospitals were shut down.
In 1948, the AEC asked ORINS to establish a
clinical research facility as part of a national pro-
gram to address public and scientific interest in
using radiation to treat cancer. ORINS estab-
lished a Medical Division to operate the hospital
and conduct biomedical research. It was assigned
space in the former Manhattan Project hospital
at Oak Ridge. In 1950, ORINS began accepting
patients referred by private physicians for exper-
imental cancer therapy. A board of medical con-
sultants from southern medical schools was as-
sembled to oversee the clinical research pro-
gram. The hospital operated until 1974, when it
and the other AEC research hospitals were shut
down. By that time, many private hospitals
around the country were offering high-quality
nuclear medicine facilities. ORINS medical per-
sonnel continued treating patients on an outpa-
tient basis.
153
Human Radiation Experiments: T he DOE Roa dmap to the Story and the Re cords
In 1966 ORINS became known by the name of
its operating contractor, Oak Ridge Associated
Universities. During the early 1990s the facility
was renamed the Oak Ridge Institute for Science
and Education (ORISE). ORAU currently re-
mains the managing and operating contractor.
Site Human Radiation Experiments
ORINS and ORNL performed all identified human
radiation experiments at Oak Ridge except for
one plutonium injection experiment: the first in
the series done at various sites. A Manhattan Pro-
ject physician administered the injection in April
1 945 at the Oak Ridge hospital. Clinton Laborato-
ries personnel also constructed mathematical
models based on the excretion data from this and
three other plutonium injection experiments.
The ORINS Medical Division conducted clinical
experiments using radionuclide and total body
irradiation therapies to develop cancer diagnosis
and treatment. ORNL personnel performed a
few clinical experiments and conducted three
intentional radiation releases as part of radiologi-
cal warfare field tests. Most human radiation
studies undertaken at Oak Ridge were per-
formed by ORINS Medical Division personnel
through the cancer research hospital and a re-
lated biomedical research program. Individual
clinical experiments are detailed in Chapter 3,
while the ORNL environmental releases are dis-
cussed in the Environmental Radiation Releases
narrative.
Most human radiation studies undertaken
at Oak Ridge were performed by ORINS
Medical Division personnel through the
cancer research hospital and a related
biomedical research program.
ORINS radiation experiments — ORINS human
radiation experiments involved the use of radia-
tion and radioisotopes in the study of cancer,
specifically in cancer biology and treatment. The
main areas of experimentation related to five
concerns:
• total body irradiation in the treatment of
leukemia, lymphoma, and polycythemia
rubra vera (a condition in which too many
red blood cells are formed);
• the development and evaluation of telether-
apy (Figure 36);
• the effects of radiotherapy on the blood;
• the development of other uses of radiation
and isotopes in cancer treatment; and
• the study of other therapy-related biologic
effects.
Much time and effort was devoted to determin-
ing the biological, physiological, and clinical ef-
fects of total body irradiation.
Figure 36. Cobalt-60 teletherapy conducted for cancer treatment
at the Oak Ridge Institute for Nuclear Science (1972). (PHOTO:
F.w. Hoffman, AEC Oak Ridge Operations Office)
Patients meeting predetermined disease criteria
were accepted into the research hospital on the
recommendation of the medical schools of
ORINS member institutions. About 3,000 pa-
tients participated in the program from 1950
through 1974, when the hospital was closed.
ORINS Medical Division personnel required pa-
tients to sign consent forms before undergoing
treatment. Patients were provided with a book-
let describing radiation generally, the nature of
the program, and the nature of the experimental
program in which they would participate. The
Medical Division staff as a group reviewed pro-
posed experimental treatments until 1967. That
year, following the example of the National Insti-
tutes of Health and acting on AEC recommenda-
tions, ORINS formed an institutional review
board that examined proposals for research us-
ing human subjects.
154
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: The Oak Ridge Sites
Total body irradiation had been employed for
cancer treatment beginning in the 1930s, but
until the late 1950s the instruments available did
not provide uniform radiation fields. ORINS ad-
dressed this problem by designing and construct-
ing a room to hold eight radiation sources that
delivered a uniform dose at a moderate rate.
The facility — called the Medium Exposure Total
Body Irradiator, or METBI — went into use in
I960. In 1967, the Low Exposure Total Body
Irradiator (LETBI) was built. Between 1 960 and
1 974, some 200 cancer patients received experi-
mental treatment in these facilities.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
tion (NASA) found LETBI patient data useful in
assessing risks that astronauts might face from
radiation in space or nuclear-powered space-
craft. Accordingly, in 1963, the AEC asked
ORINS to assist NASA in assessing the health
risks that astronauts might face from radiation in
space. In response, ORINS conducted a retro-
spective study of acute radiation-induced effects
among patients who had been exposed to radia-
tion previously in hospitals throughout the coun-
try. NASA also funded some LETBI work and
data from patients receiving cancer treatment
were used to address NASA questions.
ORNL — ORNL/Clinton Laboratories scientists
conducted comparatively few human radiation
experiments. Laboratory experimentation was
episodic and determined by the research inter-
ests of individual scientists. Examples include
two 1945 radiation skin absorption experiments,
a 1963 experiment in which an investigator put
radioactive silver on his own arm, and an early
1960s experiment in which five male subjects
ingested radioiodine. The Laboratory helped
with analyses of body fluids and autopsy materi-
als of I I patients injected with uranium at Mas-
sachusetts General Hospital during the early
1 950s. In 1 948, ORNL also conducted the three
radiological warfare tests noted earlier. These
tests apparently did not involve intentional hu-
man radiation exposures.
Site Records Collections
Oak Ridge presents a challenge to the re-
searcher. The site has many valuable records
collections that document its history and the his-
tory of other MED and AEC sites. However,
many of these collections are currently hard to
use. The difficulties are illustrated by the inactive
records of the DOE operations office. Nearly all
these records — some 7,000 cubic feet encom-
passing everything from 1940s site construction
plans to 1990s travel vouchers — are stored in a
single records-holding area.
During the 1940s and 1950s, Oak Ridge served
as a central records-collection point for other
MED and AEC facilities. At one time, the re-
cords were carefully organized and indexed. But
after years of inattention, there are today more
than 1,000 boxes of fragmented and disorga-
nized records dating from 1965 or before. Some
important unclassified files were transferred to
the custody of the National Archives and Re-
cords Administration (NARA). However, since
NARA would not manage DOE classified re-
cords, classified segments were removed from
many collections transferred to archival custody.
These segments remain in the Oak Ridge holding
area, separated from their parent series.
Starting in 1987, NARA and the DOE Oak Ridge
Operations Office began working to character-
ize the records in the holding area and to trans-
fer permanently valuable series to archival cus-
tody. Many significant files were transferred, but
neither NARA nor DOE could provide adequate
resources to finish the job. Listed below are re-
cords series that remain in Oak Ridge; it should
be remembered, however, that these materials
often represent fragments of larger series that
either are at NARA or have been scattered, lost,
or destroyed.
The site has many valuable records col-
lections that thoroughly document its his-
tory and the history of other MED and
AEC sites. However, many of these collec-
tions are currently hard to use.
Among the most potentially valuable of these
records are more than 600 cubic feet of con-
tract files dating to the early days of the MED.
Considering that records retention guidelines
call for such documents to be destroyed after
only 6 years, the fact that this material survives
at all is remarkable. Another important body of
records is the Records Holding Task Group
(RHTG) Files, which consists of nearly 300
155
Huma n Ra diatio n Experiments: Th e DO E Roadmap to the Story and the Re cords
boxes of classified documents removed from
other collections. In archival terms, this is an
artificial collection — one whose documents have
lost all association with their original series.
The records situation for the Oak Ridge con-
tractor sites is better. ORISE has many impor-
tant records series documenting activities of the
Medical Sciences Division, although the parent
organization has only recently begun a system-
atic program to manage and control all its re-
cords. Of particular value are the ORISE medical
files (for which personal privacy restrictions ap-
ply) and a full set of periodic reports from the
start of the facility. ORNL has a huge volume of
records contained in the various elements of its
designated central files, which include corre-
spondence, reports, and laboratory notebooks.
Both Y— 1 2 and K-25 have a smaller volume of
records. DOE plans to continue its efforts to
identify records holding at all of these sites and
to pursue avenues for archival preservation of
permanently valuable series. For additional Oak
Ridge records, see the series listed under the
National Archives and Records Administration.
156
Chapter 2, Narr atives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Oak Ridge Operations Office
Oak Ridge Operations Office
SERIES TITLE A EC Manager’s Meetings Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 957-1 965
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION These records consist of Oak Ridge Operations Office Manager Sam Sapirie’s files
relating to annual Washington meetings of AEC field operations office managers.
These meetings covered broad aspects of AEC policies and operations, including
security, budgets, public relations, congressional legislation, and civil defense. Re-
cords for each meeting are filed together. Included are agendas, minutes, reports,
correspondence, directives, and other material relating to individual meetings. Also
present are Sapirie’s notes and correspondence relating to meeting activities.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 271 4J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
SERIES TITLE Classification Office Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 956-1 97 1
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 2 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series consists of documents compiled by the Classification Office showing
classification policies and directives. It includes information on classification of nuclear
weapons programs, nuclear production activities, and nuclear reactors. The series
consists of letters, memorandums, and bulletins.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 271 4J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
157
Human Ra diation Experiments: The D O E Roadmap to the Stor y an d the Records
SERIES TITLE Contract Division Insurance Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 948-1 965
ARRANGEMENT
VOLUME
Chronological
1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION Contained in these records are insurance policy files for AEC contractors, including
Mallinckrodt Chemical Works, H.K. Ferguson Co., and Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear
Science (ORINS). Policy files detail liability coverage and premiums for staff, facilities,
and automobiles; information regarding workmen’s compensation is also present. The
ORINS file documents issues such as medical malpractice and clinical activities,
including patient treatment and autopsy. Correspondence is present to and from the
Oak Ridge Division of Research, Oak Ridge Insurance Branch, AEC Insurance Sec-
tion, and Office of the Comptroller in Washington, DC. Correspondence subjects
include insurance coverage and premiums, public liability, workmen’s compensation,
and levels of needed coverage. These records appear to be fragments of a larger
collection that existed at one time.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 271 4J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
SERIES TITLE Chief Counsel Office, Subject Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 949-1 987
ARRANGEMENT AEC Subject/Numeric Filing System
VOLUME 28 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series was compiled by chief counsel staff to document litigation and other legal
activities. It contains documentation on operations office legal matters and includes
information on lawsuits, discrimination, procurement, and contract matters. These
files contain letters, memos, reports, affidavits, depositions, and other legal docu-
ments. The series includes data on releases at the Portsmouth Plant.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 271 4J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
158
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Oak Ridge Operations Office
SERIES TITLE Decatur Area Office Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 944-1 945
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION The series consists of fragments of correspondence files pertaining to the manufac-
turing operation of the Houdaille Hershey Plant. The series consists of letters, memo-
randums, and reports that were maintained as an office subject file.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains a small amount of classified information.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 271 4J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
SERIES TITLE Feed Materials Division, Lockiand Area Office, and Personnel Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 943-1 962
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 45 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series consists of correspondence files from three organizations. The Feed
Materials division files (26 cu. ft.) cover uranium ore refining and assay activities at
Oak Ridge and at the Mallinckrodt Chemical Works, Harshaw, Linde Air Products,
and other plants. The Lockiand Area office files (11 cu. ft.) cover attempts to develop
nuclear reactors for the propulsion of aircraft. The personnel files (8 cu. ft.) contain
organization charts, directives, and files on personnel. The series consists of letters,
memorandums, reports, charts, and directives. The Feed Materials files are arranged
according to a Dewey Decimal System; the Lockiand files by the AEC Subject/Filing
System; and the personnel files by subject. The personnel files contain early Oak
Ridge organization charts and a file on medical activities for 1943-1946.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 271 4J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
159
Human Ra diation Experiments: The D OE Roadma p to the Story and t h e Records
SERIES TITLE Finance Division Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 944-1 986
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 11 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series was compiled by Oak Ridge personnel to capture data needed for finan-
cial oversight of contractors. The series contains documentation on financial policy
implementation, contractor financial matters, audits, cost accounting methods, and
uranium purchases. The series consists of letters, memorandums, reports, invoices,
purchase orders, and cost accounting records. The series contains some files on the
origins of the division.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains a small amount of classified information.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 271 4J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
SERIES TITLE Individual Injury Reports and Medical File — Various MED Areas
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 943-1 947
ARRANGEMENT Location
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION This grouping consists of compensation claim files and occupational injury records
from locations such as Brookhaven, Chicago, Colorado, Columbia, Hanford, Madison
Square, New York, Santa Fe Safety Branch, and the Division of Engineering and
Production. Compensation files are arranged alphabetically by name of employee.
Included is correspondence describing injuries written by the District Safety Engineer
and area medical officials to the U.S. Employee Compensation Commission.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 271 4J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
160
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Oak Rid g e Operations Offic e
SERIES TfTLE Industrial Personnel Relations Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 957-1 979
ARRANGEMENT Site or work location
VOLUME 11 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series consists of reports, contracts, and correspondence relating to employee
salaries, strikes, retirement, grievances, insurance, and workmen’s compensation.
Also present is information about job descriptions, recruitment and regulatory pro-
grams, organizational structure, labor laws, compliance with the Davis-Bacon Act, and
National Labor Relations Board Activities. Contractors covered include University of
Puerto Rico, National Lead of Ohio, University of Tennessee, and Martin Marietta.
Specified sites include the Portsmouth and Paducah gaseous diffusion plants. A file
listing is available.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 271 4J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
SERIES TITLE Injury and Compensation Claim Files
inclusive DATES 1943-1950; 1961-1976
ARRANGEMENT Record type
VOLUME 12 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These files document reports of employee job injuries and claims for compensation.
Content, scope, and coverage vary within the files. Most of the files consist of individ-
ual employee injury reports created by the MED/AEC Oak Ridge Safety Branch.
These reports include the name of the injured party, along with the type of injury, its
severity, where it occurred, and if it occurred as a result of unsafe practices or condi-
tions. Statements of the injured party as well as their supervisors are included.
Monthly summary reports of site injuries are present, mostly for Oak Ridge although
some other sites are represented as well. Compensation claim files also include injury
reports along with correspondence with claimants, doctors, and insurance representa-
tives. Transmittal memos to the AEC Insurance Section are included. These records
consist of file fragments, and gaps are apparent.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 271 4J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
161
Human R a diation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap t o th e Sto ry a nd the Records
SERIES TITLE Joseph A. Lenhard Reading File
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 957-1 97 1
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION Records created and maintained by Joseph A. Lenhard, an AEC Oak Ridge em-
ployee. Lenhard was a health physicist who was employed by the Biology Branch of
the Oak Ridge Operations Office Research Division. In 1967, Lenhard became Direc-
tor of the Oak Ridge Safety Division, and later served as Director of the Safety and
Environmental Control Division. The files document effluent and other pollution con-
trol, compliance with environmental protection laws, occupational health and safety,
fire protection, waste disposal, isotopes handling and radiological safety, procedures
for handling contaminated ORINS patients, and fallout reports. Much of the documen-
tation consists of occupational correspondence with other AEC officials and with Oak
Ridge contractors.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 2714J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
SERIES TITLE K-25 Insurance Branch Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 944-1 953
ARRANGEMENT AEC Subject/Numeric Filing System
VOLUME 0.5 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION The series contains seven files on the following subjects: insurance code classifica-
tions for some individual workers, a summary of health and accident reports for the
site, and automobile accident reports at Oak Ridge. This series contains organization
and personnel monthly status reports for the period June 1950 to October 1951.
Several of these reports have short sections on insurance activities, which contain
claims and pending litigation against Oak Ridge Operations Office for work-related
disabilities.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 27145
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
162
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Oak Ridge Operations Office
SERIES TITLE New Brunswick Area Office Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 956-1 958
ARRANGEMENT AEC Subject/Numeric Filing System
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION The series consists of fragments of correspondence files compiled to document the
activities of the area office. They contain documentation pertinent to ore assay activi-
ties. The records include memorandums, letters, and reports organized into subject
files.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 2714J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
SERIES TITLE New York Operations Office Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1943-1944; 1951-1957; 1964-1972
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 6 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series was compiled by New York Operations Office staff to assist in oversight
of contractor operations. It contains documentation on plant operations, fuel element
fabrication, Rochester worker badges, the Middlesex sampling plant, and the Fernald
plant. The series contains letters, memorandums, reports, notebooks, handwritten
notes, and badges.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains a small amount of classified information.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 2714J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
163
Hu man Rad i ation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap t o the Story an d the Records
SERIES TITLE New York Operations Office Contract Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 943-1 950
ARRANGEMENT Record type
VOLUME 37 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These records consist of documents related to contracts managed by the MED/AEC
New York Operations Office. Contractors include private corporations such as Brush
Beryllium, Electro Metallurgical, and Radium Chemical. Federal agencies, including
the Navy Department, Bureau of Federal Supply, and War Assets Administration, are
also represented by contracts in the files.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 2714J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
SERIES TITLE Oak Ridge Contract Files
INCLUSIVE DATES ca. 1943-ca. 1978
ARRANGEMENT Contract number
VOLUME approximately 650 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series consists of procurement files containing forms, reports, and correspon-
dence associated with specific Oak Ridge-related contracts. The bulk of the files
consist of routine financial and administrative materials relating to contract negotia-
tion, awards, and financial accounting. The most substantive information is located
in narrative statements included in project proposals, correspondence, and periodic
reports, which are not always present in the files for each contract. The contracts
relate to all areas of MED/AEC/DOE activities, including construction, manufacturing,
administration, and research and development. Some human experimentation activi-
ties are detailed. The quantity and type of information varies among the files. For each
contract file the volume of material ranges from a few pages to more than a cubic
foot. There are significant gaps in the files, and it is not known where the missing files
are located. An index to contractors is available.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 2714J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
164
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Oak Ridge Operations Office
SERIES TITLE Oak Ridge Manager’s Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1951-1953
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 7 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The records appear to be the official files created and maintained in the office of the
AEC Oak Ridge Operations Office Manager. This series covers a broad range of
subjects relating to Oak Ridge facilities. Topics include: budget, accounting, and
finance; community management; contracts; industrial research and application;
information and publications; medicine, health and safety; organization and manage-
ment; and research and development. While these files appear to be complete for the
period covered, the location of similar material dating before and after is not known.
A file listing is available.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 271 4J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
SERIES TITLE Public Information Office Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1971-1973
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 21 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These records are the central subject files for the Oak Ridge Public Information
Office. A broad range of subjects are covered, including news releases, press inter-
views, radio and television stories, motion picture scripts, labor relations, procurement
and contracts, and reactor development. Some information pertaining to medicine,
health, and safety issues, including accidents, environment, and “special cases” of
radiation exposure is present. Speeches of the Operations Office Manager are also
included. While the files appear complete for the years covered, these records may
be fragments of a larger collection that has yet to be located. A file folder listing is
available for the 1971 records.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 271 4J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
165
Hu man Radiation Experiments: The DOE Road map to the Story and the R ecords
SERIES TITLE Periodic Progress Reports (Oak Ridge Copy)
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 948-1 973
ARRANGEMENT Report type; chronologically thereunder
VOLUME 8 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series consists of the Oak Ridge manager’s office copy of the following formal
reports: reports of the Oak Ridge operations office; monthly reports to the General
Advisory Committee; quarterly progress reports to the Joint Committee on Atomic
Energy; Hanford Operations Office reports; and Savannah River Operations Office
reports. The series does not contain a complete set of any of these types of reports.
Some reports contain information on AEC biomedical programs and activities.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains classified information.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 271 4J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
SERIES TITLE Personal Insurance Record Cards
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 943-1 944
ARRANGEMENT Alphabetical by name
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION These records consist of four trays of 3- by 5-inch cards. The trays are labeled Uni-
versity of California, Clinton Laboratories, and University of Chicago. Each card con-
tains the name of contractor, name of insured, date effected, premium amount, date
canceled, and details regarding claims. Names are included under name of insured;
these individuals were likely employees of the designated contractor. These cards
likely are fragments of a larger collection of records that no longer exists.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 271 4J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
166
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Oak Ridge Operations Office
SERIES TITLE R.W. Cook Office Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 947-1 951
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION The series was compiled by Cook’s office to document his activities as manager of
the operations office. It includes documentation on security, budget, and Clinton
Laboratory matters. The series contains letters, memorandums, and reports arranged
by subject.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains a small amount of classified information.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 271 4J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
SERIES TITLE Records Holding Task Group (RHTG) Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 942-1 980
ARRANGEMENT Sequential by assigned document number
VOLUME 290 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series consists entirely of classified documents removed from other files. This is
an artificial collection created for classified document accountability purposes. The
documents were produced by many parent Oak Ridge offices, including those con-
cerned with MED biomedical programs. The files cover a variety of subjects from
biomedical research to the production of special nuclear materials. File contents were
assembled with classified documents removed from Oak Ridge records collections,
some of which are now in the custody of the National Archives. An item index, which
is itself classified, has been prepared as a listing of the documents in the collection.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains classified information.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 271 4J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
167
Human Radiation Experim ents: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Research and Development Division Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 943-1 957; 1 962-1 967
ARRANGEMENT None
VOLUME 5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series was compiled by operations office staff to provide oversight of contractor
operations. It includes materials on K-25 plant operations and medical reports and
files similar to records found in Oak Ridge Operations Office collections in the Na-
tional Archives field branch in East Point, GA. The series contains letters, proposals,
blueprints, construction notebooks, memorandums, and reports.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains classified information.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 271 4J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
1IES TITLE Research and Medicine Division Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 944-1 948
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 3.5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series consists of letters, memorandums, and reports compiled by the office to
administer MED/AEC biomedical programs. Included is documentation, much of it
declassified, on MED and early AEC biomedical programs and policies. The series
has material pertaining to the interim medical advisory committee, extensive material
pertaining to radioisotope distribution, and other documentation pertinent to human
radiation experimentation. The series is closely related to the Oak Ridge Operations
Office Research and Medicine Division files in the custody of the National Archives.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 271 4J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
168
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Oak Ridge Operations Office
SERIES TITLE St Louis Area Office Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 946-1 965
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 2 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series consists of fragments of correspondence files compiled to document the
activities of the area office. Included are personnel and security subject files; materials
supply reports; plant and equipment diagrams; communications security files; and
materials control files. The series consists of letters and memorandums organized
into subject files.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Operations Office
RECORDS Building 2714J
200 Administration Road
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
169
Human Radiation Experim en ts: The D OE Ro admap to the Story an d the Records
Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (PRISE)
SERIES TITLE DOE/ORiSE DTPA Program and Registry
inclusive dates 1 959-present
ARRANGEMENT Record type
VOLUME 12 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series consists of correspondence, reports, publications, and patient registries
(electronic as weli as hard copy) relating to efforts to reduce transuranic body burdens
through chemical chelation. These burdens typically were acquired by nuclear work-
ers who had inhaled or ingested materials such as plutonium. Chelation is a process
that attempts to speed excretion of materials such as plutonium and other
transuranics through administration of chemical compounds. DTPA is approved by
FDA as an Investigational New Drug (IND) for chelation of selected transuranic ele-
ments such as plutonium. Subjects covered include human use protocols, informed
consent, and patient response, as well as general administration of the program. Also
included are historical AEC business files for the DTPA program that document
activities occurring prior to ORAU’s involvement in 1978.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education
RECORDS Medical Sciences Division
150 East Road, Room A
Oak Ridge, TN 37830
SERIES TITLE Human Radiation Studies Information
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 943-1 986
ARRANGEMENT Record type
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION This is a reference file containing publications and other documents relevant to re-
ports of human radiation experiments. Included are 1984 project summaries prepared
by AEC in response to queries from Congressman R.L. Ottinger and ABC News, as
well as the 1986 congressional report American Nuclear Guinea Pigs: Three Decades
of Radiation Experiments on Citizens. Also present are several nuclear medicine
publications that discuss aspects of ORINS/ORAU medical studies.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education
RECORDS Medical Sciences Division
140 East Vance Road, Room 202A
Oak Ridge, TN 37830
170
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education
SERIES TITLE Institutional Business Files and Reports
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 945-1 954
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION This grouping consists of three bound volumes of original correspondence document-
ing the establishment and early operations of ORINS. Also included are photographs,
press reports, and the original ORINS letter contract. The compilation was assembled
along with detailed written commentary in observance of the tenth ORINS anniver-
sary. Note: these are official ORAU records.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education
RECORDS Medical Sciences Division
140 East Vance Road, Room 202A
Oak Ridge, TN 37830
SERIES TITLE Medical Correspondence and Committee Fites
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 947-1 993
ARRANGEMENT Record type
VOLUME 4 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This collection consists of several small bodies of documents relating to
ORINS/ORAU medical policies, including use of human subjects. The AEC Medical
Division Correspondence (1947) pertains to clinical testing and legal responsibilities.
Clinical conference announcements (1951-1957) document periodic hospital staff
discussions relating to patients and pertinent study findings. Minutes of the
Teletheraphy Committee (1951-1960) discuss development of new instruments and
techniques for medical use of external radiation. The Committee on Human Studies
proposals (1967-1993) cover review of proposals to conduct studies involving human
subjects at the facility. Medical Radionuclide Committee/Committee on Human Stud-
ies proposals (1 966-1 981 ) cover review of proposals for the administration of radioac-
tive materials to human subjects involved in research.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education
RECORDS Medical Sciences Division
140 East Vance Road, Room 202A
Oak Ridge, TN 37830
171
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Newsletters and Reports
inclusive dates 1 947-present
ARRANGEMENT
VOLUME
Record type
5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This collection consists of assorted ORINS/ORAU compilations and issuances in-
tended for external use. Included are ORAL) annual reports (1960-1991); Newsletters
(1948-1974); Employee News and Notes (1965-1970); Medical Division monthly
highlights (1959-1971); and bibliographies (1950-1992). These documents include
information relevant to ORINS/ORAU clinical research program (1950-1986).
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education
RECORDS Medical Sciences Division
140 East Vance Road, Room 202A
Oak Ridge, TN 37830
SERIES TITLE Patient Medical Charts
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 950-1 986
ARRANGEMENT Alphabetical by patient name
VOLUME 93 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series covers the central in and outpatient medical records (in original hard copy
and/or microfiche forms) for the ORINS/ORAU Hospital. Charts may contain admit-
tance and agreement sheets, medical histories, medical reports, clinical laboratory
results, diagnostic radiology reports, photographs, death certificates, autopsy reports,
consent forms, discharge summaries, nurse/physician notes, physician's orders,
reports, and correspondence, for visits to ORINS/ORAU clinical research program.
Also included are treatment protocols, including application of internal or external
radiation. All documents relating to an individual patient are compiled as one chart.
Records dating from after the closure of the in-patient treatment facility in 1974 docu-
ment ongoing or new outpatient visits.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Institute for Science and
RECORDS Education
Medical Sciences Division Collection
230 Warehouse Road
Records Holding Area Room 506,
Boxes 1-93
Oak Ridge, TN 37830
Oak Ridge Institute for Science and
Education
Medical Science Division
1 50 East Vance Road
Room A
Oak Ridge, TN 37830
172
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education
SERIES TITLE Patient and Radioisotope Logbooks
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 950-1 986
ARRANGEMENT Record type
VOLUME 3 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION Included here are summaries of ORAU patient treatments as well as of ORAL) receipt
and/or use of radiation sources. Present is a set of patient registry logs that provide
patient name, admission date, chart number, sex, age, address, and referring physi-
cian/university. For the ca. 1977-1986 period, the registries cover outpatients only.
No information regarding medical condition or treatment is provided. Separate logs
detail various uses of internal and external radiation. Included are logs for applications
of gallium, carbon-11, valine, tryptophan, lanthanum, iodine-131, phosphorous-32,
and other substances. These records generally include protocols and patient informa-
tion such as name, date of admission and of procedure, diagnosis, dosage, and
results. Logs for linear and other total body scans include similar information.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education
RECORDS Medical Sciences Division
140 East Vance Road, Room 202A
Oak Ridge, TN 37830
SERIES TITLE Human Total Body Irradiation Program Information Reports
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 948-1 974
ARRANGEMENT Record type
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION This is a collection of reports and other documents relating to operation and investiga-
tion of the ORAU total body irradiation (TBI) program. Present are fact sheets and
technical documents (including reports associated with summary studies of TBI at 45
institutions), articles and tape recordings relating to the D. Sexton litigation, and
reports and other documents pertaining to the 1981 congressional investigation of the
TBI program (Gore hearings).
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education
RECORDS Medical Sciences Division Collection
230 Warehouse Road
Records Holding Area, Room 506, Box 571
Oak Ridge, TN 37830
173
Human R adiation Exp e riments: The D O E Roadmap to the Story and the Records
Oak Ridge National Laboratory (QRNL)
SERIES TITLE Laboratory Director’s Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 948-present
ARRANGEMENT Subject; thereunder chronological
VOLUME 150 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These records consist of correspondence and other documents received and sent by
ORNL directors and associate directors. Nearly all operations of the Laboratory are
covered, including budgets, classification/declassification, accounting, health protec-
tion (including health physics), industrial relations, protection services, and research
and development (including much reactor research). Records types include minutes,
research proposals, budget analyses, data, and manuscripts.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
ORNL Records Vault
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
SERIES TITLE Laboratory Director Human Subject Research Reference Files
inclusive dates 1 984-present
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 3 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These records include project summaries of current DOE-sponsored research activi-
ties involving human subjects. Information in the file includes annual funding, principal
investigators, collaborating institutions, types of review, vulnerable population involve-
ment, research type, and study objectives and methodology. “Protecting Human
Subjects” forms are included.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Building 4500-N, Room H-205 (Vault)
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
174
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Oak Ridge National Laboratory
SERIES TITLE Central Files: Central Report File
inclusive dates 1 943-present
ARRANGEMENT Prefix; thereunder by number
VOLUME 1 ,200 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION Central files at ORNL consist of multiple series maintained at a single location in the
Laboratory since its inception. This central filing unit has provided individual document
control and currently serves as a report clearance mechanism. This series is a master
file for ORNL reports in all areas of research and development. There are approxi-
mately 75 different prefixes for reports in this file; each relates to a specific topical
area. ORNL prefixed reports, for example, are official institutional reports, while MON
reports were generated by Monsanto Corporation when it operated the laboratory.
Various indexes are available. The DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information
(OSTI) indexes the reports from 1974 forward.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains a small amount of classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Building 4500-N, Room H-205 (Vault)
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
175
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Central Files: CF-Prefixed Reports and Correspondence
inclusive dates 1 943-present
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 400 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION Central files at ORNL consist of multiple series maintained at a single location in the
Laboratory since its inception. This CF (central files) prefixed series includes both
correspondence and unpublished reports, and other internal unpublished material that
has been collected and given a report number. After the 1970s correspondence is
generally not included, but for the early period there is a considerable volume. There
is a small amount of material relating to University of Chicago activities prior to estab-
lishment of the Oak Ridge site. Approximately 30 cubic feet of the central files are
classified and are maintained separately. Handwritten chronological logs, including
classified as well as unclassified entries, list the assigned report number and brief
information about the document. These listings, verified against the documents, have
been put into an unclassified computerized database that currently goes through
1949. The records document the full range of activities and interests of Laboratory
personnel. Included are documents from the 1940s relating to Nuclear Energy for the
Propulsion of Aircraft (NEPA); documents relating to field tests, using radioactive
lanthanum, that were carried out in order to provide a basis for recommendations by
the joint AEC-National Military Establishment Panel on Radiological Warfare; and
documents relating to isotope production.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains a small amount of classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Building 4500-N, Room H-205 (Vault)
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
SERIES TITLE Central Files: Metallurgical Laboratory/
Argonne National Laboratory Reports
■ ......
________________
inclusive dates 1943-present
ARRANGEMENT Numeric
VOLUME 29.5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION Central files at ORNL consist of multiple series maintained at a single location in the
Laboratory since its inception. This series consists of reports published by the MED
Metallurgical Laboratory, as well as reports issued by the lab’s successor, Argonne
National Laboratory. Some of these reports include data regarding human health and
protection. These records constitute a complete set of reports published by the Metal-
lurgical Laboratory. An index and brief history is available.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
4500-N, H-205 (vault)
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
176
I
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Oak Ridge National Laboratory
SERIES TITLE ORNL Centra I Files: Technical Research Notebooks
inclusive dates 1 943-present
ARRANGEMENT Numeric by notebook
VOLUME 420 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION Central files at ORNL consists of multiple subseries maintained at a single location
in the Laboratory since its inception. Technical and research notebooks are used to
record data on research and development work and for establishing patent or inven-
tion rights. They are also used to document the detailed information regarding and
progress achieved on completed research. These are bound notebooks issued to
researchers which are numbered sequentially.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains classified information.
LOCATION OF Oak Ridge National Laboratory
RECORDS ORNL Records Center
Building 4500-N, Room H-205 (vault)
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
SERIES TITLE Health Physics Division Director's General Correspondence Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 943-1 958
ARRANGEMENT None
VOLUME 12 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series consists of a broad range of general correspondence files including hous-
ing and telephone allocations, incident reports, health physics reports, and meeting
minutes.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Building 4500N, Room A224
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
177
Human Radiation E xperiments: Th e DOE R oadm ap to the S tory and the Reco rds
SERIES TITLE K.Z. Morgan Files
INCLUSIVE DATES ca. 1943-1968
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 20 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These are the files of Karl Z. Morgan, past Director of the Laboratory Health Physics
Division. Included are meeting minutes, publications, reports, official and professional
correspondence, personnel exposure reports, instrument calibration information, and
radiation surveys. Much information is also present regarding establishment of the
health physics profession, as well as development of radiation exposure standards.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Building 4500-S, Attic
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
SERIES TITLE Walter Snyder Files
- - — ■■■■
inclusive dates ca. 1950-1985
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION Walter Snyder was a section head and researcher in the Health Physics Division.
These files include correspondence, publications, original experimentation data from
tissue studies, meeting minutes, reports, and laboratory notes. Topics include use of
isotopes, standard man studies, and Joseph Hamilton studies.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Building 4500-N
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
178
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Oak Ridge National Laboratory
SERIES TITLE J. H. Lum’s Official Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 940-1 948
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 1 3 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series contains records of J.H. Lum who was the Deputy Director of Oak Ridge
National Laboratory. It consists of administrative records which include information on
staffing, housing, travel, budget, and similar topics.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Building 4500-N, Room A224
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
SERIES TITLE Boston Oak Ridge Uranium Study Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 953-1 958
ARRANGEMENT Numerical (patient records)
None (other files)
VOLUME 3 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series consists of records sent from Dr. Sweet at Massachusetts General Hospi-
tal, Boston, to the Health Physics Division at ORNL. They relate to a study in which
eleven patients with inoperable brain tumors were injected with a uranium solution to
determine its usefulness in therapeutic treatment. The injections took place at Massa-
chusetts General Hospital and the uranium solution preparation and tissue analysis
was done at ORNL. The series includes a correspondence file, medical notes on
patients, and autopsy reports. There are logbooks for each patient that include analy-
sis of data. Also included is data on animal experimentation with uranium.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
1060 Commerce Park, Room 253
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
179
Human Radiatio n Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Biology Division Experiment/Research Progress Reports
inclusive dates 1 948-present
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 2.2 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This record series documents the research and experiment activities of the Biology
Division at ORNL. The documents are periodic reports consisting of abstracts of
research and experiments that were performed by scientists within the biology divi-
sion. In addition to the abstract there are also bibliographic citations if publication
resulted from the research. The reports also contain information on various animal
experiments.
LOCATION OF Y-12 Plant
RECORDS Building 9207, Annex (Hall and Room 7-24)
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
180
Chap ter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: Oak Ridg e K-25 Site
ARRANGEMENT Numeric
VOLUME 307 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These notebooks and logs record technical operations and research relating to both
daily operations and to special research activities. Present are daily notes for checks
of plant operations, as well as research progress. Notebooks are issued to specific
individuals and are used for different purposes, including to record data for establish-
ing patent or invention rights.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains a small amount of classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
K-25 Facility
Building 1034-A, Plant Records Vault
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
181
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
Y-12 Plant
SERIES TITLE Central Files: Reports
inclusive dates 1947-present
ARRANGEMENT Alphanumeric
VOLUME 523 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This file contains classified and unclassified research and development, administra-
tive, and progress reports related to the activities of this plant and other installations.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains classified information.
LOCATION OF Y-12 Plant
RECORDS Building 9711-5, Room 109 (Vault)
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
SERIES TITLE Laboratory Technical Files
inclusive dates 1951-present
ARRANGEMENT Numeric by notebook number
VOLUME 142 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The records in this series document the content and direction of research performed
at the facility. Technical and research notebooks are used to record data on research
and development work and for establishing patent and invention rights. They contain
detailed information regarding progress achieved on completed research. The series
consists of bound notebooks issued to researchers which are numbered sequentially.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
Y-12 Plant
Building 9711-5, Room 109 (Vault)
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
182
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: The Universi t y of Chicag o
The University of Chicago
The Site Today
The University of Chicago is a major academic
and research institution. Founded in 189! by
John D. Rockefeller, the university includes an
undergraduate college as well as ten graduate
programs and schools. In addition, the university
plays an active role in biomedical, physics, and
nuclear-studies research through its contract
with DOE to operate Argonne National Labora-
tory (ANL). More than I 1,000 people are em-
ployed by the University through its schools and
hospitals, and its annual budget is more than
$770 million.
Site History
The Metallurgical Laboratory — During World
War II the Federal government sponsored sub-
stantial scientific research at the University. The
premier facility was the Metallurgical Laboratory
(Met Lab), established on-campus in 1942. This
laboratory was responsible for designing the first
nuclear reactors to produce fissionable pluto-
nium for the atomic bomb, in 1946, the Met Lab
became Argonne National Laboratory, and the
university continued to operate the facility under
contract with the Government. ANL remains by
far the largest and most significant Government
nuclear facility associated with the university.
(See the section on Argonne National Labora-
tory.) The university has, however, conducted
other nuclear-related contractual work.
The premier wartime facility was the Met-
allurgical Laboratory (Met Lab), estab-
lished on-campus in 1942.
The Chicago Toxicity Laboratory — Chicago ran
a toxicity laboratory for the U.S. Army Chemical
Corps during World War II to conduct chemical
warfare research. From 1948 until 1951, the
AEC used the facility for radiological warfare
research. In 1948, the AEC worked with the
Army and the university on a research program
for the laboratory that focused on the poisonous
effects of radiation exposure. Animal research
was conducted on the local effects and general
toxicity of radioisotopes considered for use as
radiological warfare agents. Some coincidental
work was also done with ANL on developing
occupational safety practices for radiation han-
dling. When interest in radiological warfare be-
gan to decrease in 1951, the AEC considered
ending its association with the laboratory. Evi-
dence suggests that the laboratory was under
the control of the U.S. Air Force by 1 952.
Animal research was conducted on the
local effects and general toxicity of radio-
isotopes considered for use as radiological
warfare agents.
Project Sunshine — Willard F. Libby, a Nobel
laureate, held an appointment at the university’s
Enrico Fermi Institute for Nuclear Studies. In
1953, he began AEC-sponsored biomedical re-
search for Project Sunshine, which studied the
worldwide distribution and health hazards of
fallout. The project examined movement of fall-
out through the atmosphere, its deposition on
soil and vegetation, and its uptake into the hu-
man body. Researchers collected and measured
radiation levels in soil, plant, and animal samples,
and in samples of human tissues and bones, in-
cluding some from the bodies of stillborn babies.
Project Sunshine research was initially conducted
at the University of Chicago, the AEC Health and
Safety Laboratory, and the Columbia University
Lamont Geological Observatory. Fallout gener-
ated by 1 954 AEC nuclear tests led to greatly
increased funding for Project Sunshine. By 1 957,
nearly 50 institutions and Federal agencies were
participating in the project. The project yielded
important data that allowed the estimates for
worldwide fallout levels. The AEC curtailed Pro-
ject Sunshine work at the university in 1958.
The Argonne Cancer Research Hospital — Dur-
ing the immediate postwar years, there was
great interest in exploring the potential biomedi-
cal uses and effects of radiation. The Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital was one of three clin-
ical facilities created by the AEC in 1948. The
hospital was originally intended to be part of
Argonne National Laboratory, but the University
of Chicago ultimately contracted to run it as a
separate institution. While the AEC owned the
183
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
hospital, the university medical school adminis-
tered and staffed the facility. Construction began
in 1950 and the hospital admitted its first patient
in January 1 953.
Fallout led to greatly increased funding
for Project Sunshine. By 1957, nearly 50
institutions and Federal agencies were
participating in the project.
The hospital was equipped with 58 patient beds
and facilities for animal research. In addition, it
had contemporary state-of-the-art therapeutic
and diagnostic equipment for experimental can-
cer treatment and research using radioactive
materials. Members of the medical school fac-
ulty, as well as physicians and scientists from
Argonne National Laboratory and various other
institutions, used the hospital for research (Fig-
ure 37). Patients were admitted on a selective
basis, with doctors choosing persons whose
condition best suited the hospital’s research and
treatment applications. In 1973, the university
changed the name of the hospital to the Franklin
McLean Memorial Research Institute. The AEC
terminated its contract with the hospital in 1974.
Site Human Radiation Experiments
The Argonne Cancer Research Hospital under-
took many experiments focusing on the internal
use of radioisotopes. Examples include use of
carbon- 1 3 labeled glycine to investigate multiple
myeloma; application of yttrium-90 for
intracavity therapy; and chromium-51 as a label-
ing technique to study red cells. In addition, the
hospital conducted many tracer studies and
studies of radioactively labeled compounds to
determine metabolic rates. Individual site experi-
ments are detailed in Chapter 3.
Site Records Collections
The university provided helpful assistance for
the DOE search, although records relating to
the Manhattan Project and successor agencies
are seemingly not abundant. The university has
no central records-management program, and
academic departments, institutes, and Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital have preserved or
destroyed records as they saw fit. As a result,
many potentially useful records have been de-
stroyed over the years.
Figure 37. The automatic contouring system used at Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital to determine how much radiation will
penetrate to cancer tumors.
The Joseph Regenstein Library has a few perti-
nent records collections. Except for two collec-
tions, these holdings present little documenta-
tion pertinent to this project. Those seeking to
document the university’s role in human radia-
tion experiments will find only a small part of the
story here.
The Argonne Cancer Research Hospital
undertook many experiments focusing on
the internal use of radioisotopes.
Researchers should know that two access policies
are in place at the university. The Joseph
Regenstein Library collections are easily accessi-
ble through routine archival procedures. Records
in the General Counsel’s Office, however, are not
in archival custody and require advance permis-
sion for use. Use of records currently in the Pub-
lic Affairs Office also require special permission.
184
Ch a pter 2. Narratives an d Rec ords Series — Institutional A re as: The University of Chic ago
University of Chicago
SERIES TITLE Reprints from the Argonne Cancer Research Hospital
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 954-1 973
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 4 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents the medical, research and experimentation activities of the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital (ACRH). It includes articles on animal and human
subject research at the ACRH as well as data on radium watch dial painter studies.
The series consists entirely of 16 volumes of published articles and abstracts. An
index is available.
LOCATION OF The University of Chicago
RECORDS Office of Legal Counsel
5801 Ellis Avenue
Chicago, llinois 60637
SERIES TITLE Semiannual Reports of the Argonne Cancer Research Hospital
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 954-1 973
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION This series documents the medical, research and experimentation activities of the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital. It includes information on both animal and hu-
man radiation experiments carried out by the Argonne Cancer Research Hospital as
well as its assistance in Argonne National Laboratory radium and other radiation
studies. The series consists entirely of bound volumes of semiannual and annual
reports. A brief index to the reports is available.
LOCATION OF The University of Chicago
RECORDS Office of Legal Counsel
5801 Ellis Avenue
Chicago, IL 60637
185
Human Radia t ion Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to th e Story and t he Rec ords
SERIES TITLE Public Affairs Office— Faculty Files
inclusive dates 1924-present
ARRANGEMENT Alphabetical
VOLUME 70 file drawers
DESCRIPTION This series documents the lives and careers of past and present University of Chicago
faculty. It was created to serve as a resource of the Public Affairs Office. It includes
biographical, bibliographical, and professional information and contains files on Austin
Brues, Arthur Compton, Lowell Coggeshall, Robert Hasterlik, Leon Jacobson, Robert
Stone, Leo Szilard, and Raymond Zirkle. The series consists of resumes, obituaries,
bibliographies, journal articles, speeches, press releases, news clippings, correspon-
dence, and publicity materials created for special events. No index is available.
LOCATION OF University of Chicago
RECORDS Administration Building, Public Affairs Office
5801 Ellis Avenue
Chicago, IL 60637
SERIES TITLE Public Affairs Reference Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 944-1 993
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 150 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series documents publicity given to University of Chicago projects and faculty. It
includes files on biological sciences; hospitals and clinics; institutes; centers; nuclear
energy; foundations; pharmacology and radiation; Fermi Memorial; inhalation therapy;
Cancer Research Center; and Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory. It also contains
issue papers and President’s files, and a post-1987 collection of biographies and
publications. The series consists primarily of press releases and news clippings. A
finding aid is available.
LOCATION OF University of Chicago
RECORDS Administration Building, Public Affairs Office
5801 Ellis Avenue
Chicago, IL 60637
186
Cha pte r 2. Narrat ives and Records Series — Institutional A re as: The University of Chic ago
SERIES TITLE University Genera I Archival Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 892-1 988
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME Approximately 42 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents the activities of organizations, institutions, and committees
associated with the University of Chicago. It includes information on AIDS Task Force;
American Meat Institute Foundation; Argonne Universities Association; Argonne Cancer
Research Hospital; Chicago Lying-in Hospital; Hospitals and Clinics; Coggeshall Report;
Biological Sciences Division; Council on Medical and Biological Research; and Pharma-
cology Department. It does not appear to contain specific information on human radia-
tion experiments. The series consists of reports, publications, press releases, and
pamphlets. A finding aid is available.
LOCATION OF The University of Chicago
RECORDS Department of Special Collections
The Joseph Regenstein Library, Room JRL-130
1100 E. 57th Street
Chicago, IL 60637
SERIES TITLE University Miscellaneous Archival Files.
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 939-1 974
ARRANGEMENT Alphabetical by name
VOLUME Approximately 12 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents selected information concerning individuals of importance to
the University of Chicago. It contains collections of papers, such as those of George
V. LeRoy and Robert J. Hasterlik, as well as collections of publications and speeches.
The series consists of articles, speeches, press releases, letters, and memorandums.
An index is available.
LOCATION OF The University of Chicago
RECORDS Department of Special Collections
The Joseph Regenstein Library, Room JRL-130
1100 E. 57th Street
Chicago, IL 60637
187
Human Radiati on E xperiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Sto ry and the R ecords
SERIES TITLE Physics Department Papers
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 937-1 947
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 13 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents teaching and other activities of the Physics Department of the
University of Chicago. It includes correspondence files, departmental records, re-
prints, textbook and course materials, the papers of A. E. Shaw, and documentation
on the Cosmic Ray Study in Boxes 27-37. The series consists of letters, memoran-
dums, reports, reprints, personnel and health charts, navigation logs, charts, graphs,
magnetic observatory data tables, lecture notes, class records, and experimental
results. A finding aid is available.
LOCATION OF The University of Chicago
RECORDS Department of Special Collections
The Joseph Regenstein Library, Room JRL-130
1100 E. 57th Street
Chicago, IL 60637
SERIES TITLE Records of the Office of the Vice President, Special Projects
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 940-1 966
ARRANGEMENT Subject
Chronological
VOLUME 27 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents the activities of the Office of the Vice President for Special
Projects, which managed projects outside of the responsibilities of established
schools and academic departments. It includes files on contracts with various Federal
agencies, including the Departments of Agriculture, Health Education and Welfare,
and Defense (Army, Air Force, and Navy), the Office of Scientific Research and
Development, the Atomic Energy Commission, Argonne National Laboratory, the
Clinton Laboratory, du Pont and Monsanto Chemical Companies, and various con-
struction companies. It also contains two files on Project Sunshine. The series con-
sists of letters, memorandums, and reports. A finding aid is available.
LOCATION OF The University of Chicago
RECORDS Department of Special Collections
The Joseph Regenstein Library, Room JRL-130
1100 E. 57th Street
Chicago, IL 60637
188
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: The University of Rochester
The University of Rochester
The Site Today
The University of Rochester is a private, inde-
pendent institution on a 534-acre campus in
Rochester, NY. Rochester has about 8,500 en-
rolled students and is among the top 25 Ameri-
can universities in Federal funding for research
and development. Technical research centers
include the Institute of Optics, the Laboratory
for Laser Energetics, and the Strong Memorial
Hospital. Other specialties include schools of
music, management, medicine, and nursing.
Site History
From 1 850 through 1918, the institution was a
liberal arts college. In 1918, it became a university
and established professional schools and doctoral
programs. The university invested in state-of-the
art scientific instruments, including a cyclotron
and a million-volt x-ray machine. These develop-
ments brought several prominent scholars to
Rochester, including Lee A. DuBridge in physics,
W. Albert Noyes in chemistry, and Curt Stern in
biology. In 1925, Stafford L. Warren began his
service at the University of Rochester School of
Medicine and Dentistry, where he served as the
Department of Radiology chief.
The Manhattan Project looked to the uni-
versity to provide extensive research and
support for medical aspects of the bomb
program.
During World War II the university undertook
several military research projects. A major client
was the U.S. Office of Scientific Research and
Development (OSRD), which contracted with
Rochester for more than a hundred projects in
chemistry, physics, biology, medicine, and psy-
chology. The Manhattan Project, successor to
the OSRD in supporting atomic research, looked
to the university to provide extensive research
and support for medical aspects of the bomb
program. This program began in 1 943 when
Stafford Warren was appointed first as a consul-
tant and later as Chief of the Manhattan Project
Medical Section. Apart from Warren’s expertise,
Rochester was selected as a medical research
center because of the extensive biological stud-
ies with cyclotron-produced radioactive isotopes
conducted at the medical school. A contract es-
tablished a formal Manhattan Project program at
the university. This program grew rapidly, and by
the end of the war the total staff size reached
about 350.
Figure 38. An AEC inspector checking radiation equipment for
safety at Oakland Navy Hospital (circa 1973).
The Rochester project supported two basic ac-
tivities. The first consisted of technical services,
including analysis of periodic medical examina-
tion reports for all personnel employed at Man-
hattan Project facilities. Rochester also advised
these facilities on employee health protection
issues and developed radiation measurement
instruments, and staff traveled to various Man-
hattan Project sites to measure radiation and
toxic dusts.
The second service Rochester provided to the
Manhattan Project was biomedical research.
Much of this work focused on biological studies
of polonium, radium, and plutonium and was
189
Human Ra d iation Experime n ts: The DOE R oad m ap t o the St o ry and the Records
intended to establish occupational radiation ex-
posure standards. Rats and other animals were
used as subjects in man/ experiments designed
principally to measure bodily distribution and
excretion of these substances. Human beings
were also used as experimental subjects. Most
wartime activities at Rochester were secret and
related documentation was classified.
The second service Rochester provided to
the Manhattan Project was biomedical
research.
After the war, Rochester received a substantial
AEC contract to operate an Atomic Energy Pro-
ject (AEP). The university created a Department
of Radiation Biology at the medical school to ad-
minister this contract. With all of its former tech-
nical services now performed by the AEC Health
and Safety Laboratory in New York, Rochester
focused on research and education activities re-
lated to the biomedical aspects of nuclear energy.
Security eased to the point were nearly all AEP
projects where unclassified by 1 950. Most war-
time research was also declassified and published
in the open scientific literature.
Through the Atomic Energy Project, the univer-
sity established a preeminent program in radia-
tion biology. In 1950, Rochester offered the first
doctorate degree in radiation biology, and many
influential scientists passed through this pro-
gram. During the 1950s, research emphasis
shifted from acute radiation effects to molecular
aspects of radiation damage in biological systems.
Activities under the AEP also fostered extensive
work involving nuclear materials in pharmacol-
ogy and biochemistry.
Until the early 1960s, the AEC funded all activi-
ties of the university’s Department of Radiation
Biology through the Atomic Energy Project. Lim-
itations on AEC funds led Rochester in 1963 to
solicit funding from the National Institutes of
Health and the National Science Foundation.
Despite this shift, AEP research interests re-
mained focused in areas that originated during
the war or shortly thereafter: aerosols, cancer
research, internal emitters, and basic radiobiol-
ogy. AEC commitment to the program, how-
ever, declined and successor agencies also had
limited interest in the AEP. During the 1980s
DOE terminated the project and turned all facili-
ties over to the university.
Site Human Radiation Experiments
As noted, Rochester was a hub for Manhattan
Project biomedical research. As part of this ac-
tivity, the University also served as a major cen-
ter of human radiation experiments. Documents
suggest that Stafford Warren arranged a cooper-
ative experimentation plan involving the Roches-
ter and Los Alamos projects. This plan called for
separate human metabolism studies with at least
five different substances: plutonium, uranium,
polonium, and radioactive lead, each with 10
subjects; and radium, with 5 subjects. Rochester
selected the subjects, arranged for their stay at
the university hospital, administered the sub-
stances, and collected samples of blood and ex-
creta. Los Alamos analyzed the samples, deter-
mined concentrations of the administered sub-
stances, and determined rates of excretion. The
stated purpose of these experiments was to gain
knowledge about the behavior of the substances
in the body so that researchers could establish
standards for Manhattan Project workers.
Rochester was a hub for Manhattan Pro-
ject biomedical research and also served
as a major center of human radiation ex-
periments.
Evidence suggests that studies involving at least
three of these substances took place at Roches-
ter from 1945 through 1947: Eleven people re-
ceived plutonium injections; 5 received doses of
polonium (four injections and one oral dose);
and 6 received injections of uranium. Apparently
these individuals were Strong Memorial Hospital
patients who were selected on the basis of their
medical condition. For the plutonium injections,
documents show that Rochester personnel care-
fully selected each subject and prepared separate
protocols for each injection. A 1 974 AEC inves-
tigation of the plutonium injections was unable
to find documentary evidence that the university
obtained consent from these subjects.
After 1 947, biomedical aspects of the Rochester
Atomic Energy Project focused primarily on
190
C hapter 2, Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Area s: The University of Rochester
animal studies, although human subjects were
used on occasion. Individual site experiments are
detailed in Chapter 3.
Site Records Collections
Documents have been found that shed light on
Rochester’s role in biomedical support for the
MED or its successors, but these materials are
primarily in files focusing on other topics. No
body of records for the Rochester project have
been found within DOE, although documents
have been found in other files that discuss activi-
ties at the university during the war and after-
wards. Of particular value are Rochester-related
documents in the Plutonium Injection Investiga-
tion Files and the Ottinger/Markey Investigation
Files (listed earlier under the headquarters se-
ries), which document aspects of the Rochester
human radiation experiments occurring during
and just after the war. Additional documents
have been found in series at Oak Ridge, Law-
rence Berkeley Laboratory, and the National
Archives.
DOE has contacted Rochester to learn what
records the university may have relevant to hu-
man radiation experiments. The university is
involved in litigation in this area and has shown
caution in communicating the contents of its
records holdings. Rochester states that it has
not found a body of records relating to either
wartime or Atomic Energy Project activities con-
nected with human radiation experiments. The
university also states that it has searched the
potentially relevant files of its president, trea-
surer, and medical school dean. DOE did obtain
one cubic foot of AEP periodic reports dating
from about 1948 to about 1968 from the univer-
sity.
A DOE staff member traveled to Rochester to
discuss the university’s search and to examine
special collections holdings of the Edward G.
Miner Library. Two collections of personal pa-
pers were examined: the Joe W. Howland Pa-
pers and the Louis H. Hempelmann, Jr. Papers.
Both individuals participated in the plutonium
injection experiments and later joined the Roch-
ester medical school staff. DOE intends to con-
tinue efforts to review Rochester’s records
holdings.
191
Hu ma n Radiation Ex periments: The D OE R o admap to the Sto ry and the Re cords
University of Rochester
SERIES TITLE Atomic Energy Project Reports
mm
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 948-1 954
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION These records consist of periodic technical reports from the Rochester Atomic Energy
Project (AEP) to the AEC. Topics cover most aspects of AEP activities, including
biomedical studies of x rays, uranium, beryllium, thorium, fluoride, and fallout. Infor-
mation is also present regarding chemical toxicity, health physics, and educational
programs. Some gaps are apparent in the reports. The wartime origins and activities
of the project are not covered extensively in this material; the location of reports from
this era is unknown. Bibliographic listings and indexes are available.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
University of Rochester
School of Medicine and Dentistry
Rochester, NY 14642
SERIES TITLE Louis H. Hempelmann , Jr., Papers
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 948-1 973
ARRANGEMENT Record type; chronological thereunder
VOLUME 1 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION These records consist of three subgroups: correspondence and research grants of
the university medical school Division of Radiation Therapy; correspondence, re-
search grants, and budgets of the Division of Diagnostic Radiology; and annual re-
ports to the dean of the medical school. Hempelmann was an instructor in Radiology
at Washington University from 1942 to 1946, and served as Heath Division Leader
at Los Alamos from 1947 to 1948. He came to the Rochester medical school as a
professor of experimental biology in 1950. He later served as Chairman of the Depart-
ment of Radiology at Rochester. These papers contain no information pertaining to
Hempelmann’s activities prior to coming to Rochester in 1 951 , his involvement with
the MED or AEC, or his research activities at Rochester. A finding aid is available for
this collection.
LOCATION OF University of Rochester
RECORDS Edward G. Miner Library
School of Medicine and Dentistry
Rochester, NY 14642
192
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: The University of Rochester
SERIES TITLE Joe W. Howland Papers
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 949-1 973
ARRANGEMENT Record type; chronological thereunder
VOLUME 10 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These records consist of four subgroups: the Atomic Energy Project (AEP); AEP
Medical Division; Health and Safety; and Howland (personal papers). The materials
document early research in radiation toxicity and also illustrate operation of the AEP,
which was funded by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, at Rochester. Included are
Proposals for Research and Development (Form 189s); copies of the AEP Quarterly
Review; administrative records; research correspondence and reports; and educa-
tional materials. Documentation is also available concerning Howland’s activities as
a consultant on radiation exposure, occupational safety, and civil defense. Information
pertaining to the use of isotopes at Rochester and the university’s role in allocating
isotopes to regional hospitals is also present. Howland worked at the Rochester
School of Medicine and Dentistry from 1938 to 1965, ending as a professor of radia-
tion biology. He was on a leave of absence from 1944 to 1947 when he served in the
medical organization of the MED. A finding aid is available for this collection.
LOCATION OF University of Rochester
RECORDS Edward G. Miner Library
School of Medicine and Dentistry
Rochester, NY 14642
193
Human Radi at ion Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Sto ry and t he Record s
National Archives and Records Administration
The National Archives and Records Adminis-
tration (NARA) is the Federal agency responsi-
ble for overseeing the creation, management,
storage, and final disposition of the Federal gov-
ernment records. NARA provides two types of
facilities and services for physical custody of re-
cords:
• records centers — For inactive records
(older records that usually receive minimal
use), Federal agencies are permitted to use
various NARA Federal Records Centers lo-
cated around the country. Records in these
centers remain under the legal custody and
control of the agency that sent them. Most
of these records are slated for eventual de-
struction according to terms of legally ap-
proved disposition authorities.
• permanent archives — Separate archival re-
positories preserve and service records
judged to warrant permanent retention for
their historical value. Records in these re-
positories have been legally transferred to
NARA ownership and control. NARA’s job
is to protect the records and make them
available to individuals who wish to use
them. NARA maintains archival repositories
in Washington, DC, and College Park, MD,
as well as in 12 regional repositories across
the Nation.
Most of the Department of Energy’s
historical records lie beyond NARA con-
trol.
While some important files from DOE and its
predecessors have been transferred to NARA
archival custody, most of the agency’s historical
records lie beyond NARA control. This is due
partially to classification issues, but the most
substantial barrier to transfer is the poor intel-
lectual control of DOE records. It should be
noted, however, that this issue goes beyond
DOE.
There is a critical need to use innovative
efforts to manage and preserve Post-War
Federal records. Failure to do so will
mean the effective loss of the Cold War
historical record.
NARA has had limited success managing perma-
nent records dating from the postwar period,
particularly those relating to science and tech-
nology. The great volume of these materials,
their technical complexity, and their disorder
and decentralization have presented archival ob-
stacles that the Federal government as a whole
has yet to overcome. As the human radiation
experiments project has proven, however, there
is a critical need to use innovative efforts to
manage and preserve these records. Failure to
do so will mean the effective loss of the Cold
War historical record.
194
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: NARA Records Relating to the MED
National Archives Records Relating to the Manhattan Engineer District
SERIES TITLE Central Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 942-1 947
ARRANGEMENT War Department Dewey Decimal Filing System
VOLUME 60 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series documents the work of the MED, which was headquartered in Oak Ridge,
except for a short initial period in New York. It has information on the range of activi-
ties involved in the supervision of sites and contractors across the country, including
the construction and operation of the Oak Ridge and Hanford facilities. A preliminary
search revealed some references to the plutonium injection experiments and to the
polonium work at Rochester The records include extensive discussions of worker
hazards and occupational health issues and discussions of the urgent need to set
safe standards based on research with ionizing radiation and toxic chemicals. The
series consists of correspondence files of reports, letters, memorandums, studies,
meeting minutes, and telegrams. Classified documents have been removed from the
files and retained in Oak Ridge Operations. Collection number 4NN-326-8505.
LOCATION OF National Archives— Southeast Region
RECORDS 1557 St. Joseph Street
East Point, GA 30344
195
H uman Radiation Experim ents : The DOE Roadmap to the Story and t he Record s
National Archives Records Relating to the Atomic Energy Commission
SERIES TITLE Research Division Correspondence Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 944-1 962
ARRANGEMENT
VOLUME
AEC Subject/Numeric Filing System (exceptions noted below)
66 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series documents agency and site biomedical and basic research programs. It
is especially valuable for documenting biomedical policies (1944-1950), the interim
medical advisory committee, and policies for the medical use of radioisotopes. It
contains files on plant and animal studies, information related to human experimenta-
tion, and files on worker exposures and environmental emission monitoring. The
series contains subsections devoted to University of Tennessee, Oak Ridge Institute
of Nuclear Studies, and aircraft nuclear propulsion program biomedical activities. Also
included are subsections of access permits (filed by permit number), directives (filed
by directive number), and contracts (filed by contract number). A detailed folder title
inventory to series is available. The series consists of correspondence files of memo-
randums, letters, meeting minutes, handwritten notes, TWXs, drawings, charts, and
some photographs. Classified documents have been removed from the files and
retained in Oak Ridge Operations Office RHTG (Records Holding Task Group) Files.
Collection number 68A1 096.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
National Archives — Southeast Region
1 557 Street Joseph Street
East Point, GA 30344
196
Chapter 2, Narratives and Records Seri es — I nstituti o nal Areas: NAR.A Records Relating to the AEC
SERIES TITLE Research and Development Division Correspondence Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 947-1 963
ARRANGEMENT AEC Subject/Numeric Filing System (Part)
Subject (Part)
VOLUME 44 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series was assembled by Oak Ridge officials of the division in implementing
agency reactor development and other programs. It contains information on reactor
programs, isotope production, aircraft nuclear propulsion programs, other develop-
mental programs and some information on radiological warfare and RaLa programs.
There may be data in environmental emissions in the series. Boxes 12 & 13 contain
some biomedical program data for the 1944-1946 period. The series consists of
correspondence files of memorandums, letters, meeting minutes, and handwritten
notes. Classified documents have been removed from it and retained in the Oak
Ridge Operations Office Records Holding Task Group (RHTG) Files. A folder title
inventory to the series is available. Collection number 4NN-326-87-6.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
National Archives — Southeast Region
1557 St. Joseph Street
East Point, GA 30344
SERIES TITLE Research and Medicine Division Correspondence Files
inclusive DATES ca. 1 944-1 950
ARRANGEMENT Alphabetical by subject (partially by AEC Subject/Numeric Filing System)
VOLUME 20 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series documents the Oak Ridge administration of MED/AEC biology and medi-
cine programs. It contains significant information relating to all aspects of MED/AEC
biology and medical programs, including research activities, health effects of radioac-
tive and other materials, animal studies, some experiments with human subjects,
worker exposures to radiation, isotopes distribution, and plant and environmental
emission monitoring. The series includes correspondence, budget documents, re-
ports, medical and other topical case files, directives, meeting agendas and minutes,
and policy development documents. Classified documents have been removed from
the files and retained in the Oak Ridge Operations Office RHTG (Records Holding
Task Group) Files. A detailed file folder listing is available. Collection number
326-68A588.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains privacy material.
LOCATION OF National Archives— Southeast Region
RECORDS 1557 St. Joseph Street
East Point, GA 30344
197
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
SERIES TITLE Metallurgical Laboratory/Argonne National Laboratory,
Classified Correspondence Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 942-1 965
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 158 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series was compiled to document laboratory research and administration activi-
ties. It includes information on the design and construction of plutonium production
reactors, health and safety problems associated with them, other laboratory reactor
development activities, laboratory biomedical activities, research into fission products
and their health hazards, and work on separating plutonium from waste fission prod-
ucts. It also includes information on radiological warfare activities, may contain infor-
mation on clinical human radiation experiments, and contains a set of MED N and C
series of technical reports. The series contains some Walter Zinn reader files from his
tenure as laboratory director. The series consists of letters, memorandums, technical
reports, charts, graphs, and handwritten notes. A general box index is available.
Collection number E-74.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
National Archives at College Park
8601 Adelphi Road
College Park, MD 20740
SERIES TITLE Oak Ridge Diaries
INCLUSIVE DATES 1943-1972
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 14 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION This series consists of the daily diaries of the managers of the MED/AEC Oak Ridge
Operations Office. The diaries may contain brief references to radiological warfare or
to human experimentation. The diaries consist of notebooks containing typewritten
notes of telephone conversations, meetings, and significant events which took place
during the course of the day. No index is available. Collection number E-81.
RESTRICTIONS This series is entirely classified.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
National Archives at College Park
8601 Adelphi Road
College Park, MD 20740
198
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Institutional Areas: NARA Records Relating to the AEC
SERIES TITLE Office of the Secretary (Secretariat Records), Correspondence Files
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 946-1 958
ARRANGEMENT Dewey Decimal Filing System (1946-1951 portion)
AEC Subject/Numeric Filing System (1951-1958 portion)
VOLUME 146 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION These files were compiled by the Secretary to the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)
to create the official record of agency policies, origins, structure, functions, missions,
controversies, and activities at the highest level of the agency. These portions of the
files document AEC operational activities. They include agency policy formulation on
budgets, contractor oversight, nuclear weapons programs, nuclear reactor programs,
the hydrogen bomb program, special nuclear materials production programs, biomedi-
cal programs, Project Sunshine, the nuclear waste programs, contracts, and security
matters. They contain information on agency policies and standards for human experi-
mentation. They also include files on radiological warfare policy decisions and pro-
grams. The Secretary’s files contain some meeting minutes and most letter reports
of the Advisory Committee on Biology and Medicine. The 1 946-1 951 portion contains
materials on the interim medical advisory committee. The series contains AEC infor-
mation and decision staff papers, letters and memorandums showing implementation
of policy decisions, and excerpts of minutes of Commission meetings. Collection
numbers E-78 and E-79.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
National Archives at College Park
8601 Adelphi Road
College Park, MD 20740
199
Hum an Radia tion Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story a nd the Records
SERIES TITLE Minutes of the Meetings of the AEC
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 946-1 961
ARRANGEMENT
VOLUME
Chronological
5 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series consists of minutes for Commission Meetings 1-1807 and for a few unoffi-
cial meetings, as well as indexes to the meeting minutes. Minutes contain summaries
relating to general policy or other matters brought up for discussion; policy decisions
are recorded. Subjects dealt with in minutes relate broadly to the AEC’s origins,
structure and administration, functions, and programs. More specifically, they concern
such matters as budgetary planning, biomedical programs, the fallout controversy,
Project Sunshine, research programs, reactor development, nuclear fuel production,
military applications of atomic energy, weapons testing, facility construction, security
matters, and health and safety concerns. They were compiled by the Secretary to the
Atomic Energy Commission to record policy decisions on virtually all subjects coming
before the AEC commissioners. The series consists of meeting minutes arranged in
chronological order by formal meeting number. Collection number E-19.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
National Archives at College Park
8601 Adelphi Road
College Park, MD 20740
SERIES TITLE Microfilm Copies of Transcripts of the Meetings of the AEC
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 954-1 957
ARRANGEMENT Chronological
VOLUME 0.3 cubic foot
DESCRIPTION The series consists of verbatim transcripts of the proceedings of commission regular
meetings, executive session meetings, and informal meetings. The series was com-
piled by the AEC Secretary to create a supplemental record of agency policy deci-
sions. The series contains verbatim discussions of a wide range of subjects; for
example, the J.R. Oppenheimer security clearance decision, the fallout controversy,
biomedical programs, nuclear weapons programs, special nuclear materials produc-
tion programs, basic research programs, civilian nuclear power programs, regulatory
programs, and Atoms for Peace programs. The series consists entirely of transcripts
arranged in chronological order.
RESTRICTIONS This series is entirely classified.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
National Archives at College Park
8601 Adelphi Road
College Park, MD 20740
200
Chap t er 2. Narrativ es a nd Records Series — Institutional Areas: NARA Records Relating to the AEC
SERIES TITLE Minutes and Reports of Meetings of the General Advisory Committee (GAC)
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 947-1 974
ARRANGEMENT Chronological by date of meeting
Numerical sequence by meeting number
VOLUME 6 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series consists of summaries of GAC meetings prepared by the Committee
Secretary. It contains minutes and related records that document the GAC’s involve-
ment in administrative and policy matters relating to basic research, reactor develop-
ment, weapons development and testing, research performed by Atomic Energy
Commission national and other laboratories, special nuclear materials production
programs, test ban and disarmament negotiations, and the hydrogen bomb decision
and program. Because the General Advisory Committee rarely considered biomedical
topics, the series contains little, if anything, directly pertinent to human radiation
experiments. The series contains meeting minutes, agendas, letter reports of meet-
ings, and some special subcommittee reports. Collection number E-70.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
National Archives at College Park
8601 Adelphi Road
College Park, MD 20740
SERIES TITLE Records of the Division of Biology and Medicine
Relating to Fallout Monitoring and Studies
INCLUSIVE DATES 1 946-1 973
ARRANGEMENT Subject
VOLUME 22 cubic feet
DESCRIPTION The series consists of correspondence files and data files created by the fallout
studies branch and other units of the Atomic Energy Commission’s division of biology
and medicine. It contains extensive documentation on fallout controversy of the
1950s, including files on Project Sunshine, the investigation of sheep losses after the
1953 test series, and the controversy over Harold Knapp’s analysis of iodine-131
doses to residents of St. George, Utah. The series is arranged into subject files, but
they are not grouped according to a single filing system. The series contains technical
reports, Project Sunshine bulletins, speeches, memorandums, letters, transcripts of
interagency conferences, data files, handwritten notes, published articles, and photo-
graphs. Collection number E-73.
RESTRICTIONS This series contains classified information.
LOCATION OF
RECORDS
National Archives at College Park
8601 Adelphi Road
College Park, MD 20740
201
Human Radiation Experiments: The DO E Roadmap to the Story and the Re cords
Topical Areas
T hree topical narratives dealing with areas
of special interest are included here:
I. Radiation, Biomedical Science, and Distribu-
tion of Isotopes:
2. Plutonium Injection Experiments; and
3. Intentional Radiation Releases.
Because these topics cut across sites and other
structural arrangements, records series for
these narratives are not listed. Series that are
pertinent to the topics are, however, listed un-
der the site narratives.
Human radiation experiments encompass many
additional topics beyond those presented here.
Yet the three that are discussed are of particular
relevance to DOE and sufficient information is
available about them to tell a meaningful story.
As with the other topical areas covered in this
report, the broad outlines of what took place
are provided with particular attention to organi-
zational context.
Figure 39. Joseph Hamilton (left) conducting one of the first isotope metabolism studies during the 1 930s. The study took place at the
Lawrence Radiation Laboratory (now Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory).
202
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Seri es — Top ic al Areas: Radiation, Biomedical Sciences, & Isotope Distribution
Radiation, Biomedical Science, and Isotope Distribution
Introduction
Government-sponsored human radiation ex-
periments occurred in the broader context of
biomedical science, which encompassed experi-
mental research as well as medical diagnosis and
treatment.
Biomedical use of radiation began before the
Manhattan Project. This use, moreover, has
grown into accepted practices of modern nu-
clear medicine that today take place with only
limited Government involvement. The Manhat-
tan Project and its successors (AEC and DOE)
played a key role in advancing the scientific use
of radiation. This role ran from developing criti-
cal research tools to supporting pioneering can-
cer therapy. The role also included questionable
and controversial activities, such as wartime hu-
man experiments.
Background
Before 1930, scientists were aware that multiple
versions of some elements existed in nature.
Such versions of a single element, known as iso-
topes, shared the same chemical properties.
Some of these isotopes had unstable nuclei that
gave off radiant energy — radioactivity — as they
disintegrated.
Radioactive isotopes had value for biological re-
search because a researcher could measure their
movement through living organisms. In 1923, the
first use of radioactivity in biological study took
place when a radioactive isotope of lead was em-
ployed to study bean root absorption. Shortly
afterward, radioactive isotopes of lead and bis-
muth were used in animal studies. During the
late 1920s, Herman Blumgart of Harvard Univer-
sity extended this work by injecting isotopes
into humans to study physiological processes.
Initially, the major limitation to research use of
isotopes was the scarcity of naturally occurring
radioactive elements. This stricture began to
loosen in 1934, when Irene Curie and Jean
Frederic Joliot announced they had produced a
new radioisotope by striking target metals with
alpha radiation. During the same year, physicists
working under Ernest O. Lawrence at the Uni-
versity of California in Berkeley announced they,
too, had produced isotopes. The Berkeley group
used Lawrence’s cyclotron to bombard a variety
of elements with atomic particles, which proved
to be a highly effective method of producing var-
ious new isotopes.
Radioactive isotopes had value for biolog-
ical research because a researcher could
measure their movement through living
organisms.
John Lawrence, Joseph Hamilton, and other
Berkeley biomedical researchers working with
E.O. Lawrence quickly grasped the value of radi-
ation and radioactive materials for human exper-
iments. Hamilton used radioactive sodium to
study blood circulation. John Lawrence used an
isotope of phosphorous in experimental treat-
ments for leukemia and polycythemia rubra vera.
Robert Stone pioneered the use of external ra-
diation sources for experimental treatment of
human cancer patients. Other researchers at
various institutions also used radioactive materi-
als to make significant advances in scientific
knowledge during the 1 930s.
These developments led to optimism (and in-
creased funding) for the biomedical use of radia-
tion. Universities such as Harvard, Rochester,
and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
acquired cyclotrons and x-ray equipment to pur-
sue studies of plants, animals, and humans. Yet
despite the cyclotron and other means of pro-
ducing radioactive materials, the total amount
available for research remained small. One con-
sequence of this was limited knowledge of the
potential harm from radiation. It was known that
some industrial dial painters who inadvertently
ingested radium during earlier decades had con-
tracted bone cancers and other maladies; radiol-
ogists of the era were aware that too much
x-ray radiation would cause damage. But the
overall hazards of radiation, both immediate and
long term, were not well understood.
203
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
World War II and the Manhattan
Project
Early in 1 942, officials of the Manhattan Project
realized they needed a special medical program
associated with the secret project to build an
atomic bomb. Work was underway to construct
mammoth industrial facilities to produce pluto-
nium and uranium-235, key bomb materials.
These materials existed in minute quantities to
that point, but successful operation of the new
plants would result in massive production. Many
scientists and thousands of workers would be
exposed to exotic new materials, some of which
were extremely toxic. The health effects from
such exposures were unknown. There were
many reasons to worry about possible adverse
health effects. There were humanitarian con-
cerns for personnel safety, but two other issues
also loomed large:
• If knowledgeable personnel were disabled or
killed from exposures, keeping the project
secret would be impossible, as would main-
taining the bomb schedule.
• If excessive radioactivity spread from produc-
tion facilities, it might be detected through
adverse health effects. This detection, like-
wise, threatened to compromise secrecy.
To avert these risks, the MED in 1943 asked
Stafford Warren, professor of radiology at the
University of Rochester School of Medicine and
Dentistry, to serve as Chief of the Manhattan
Project Medical Section. Along with industrial
safety and medical care, the Medical Section was
responsible for funding and coordinating univer-
sity biomedical research programs. Most of
these research programs were carried out in a
select group of universities — particularly Berke-
ley, Rochester, and Chicago — that had been ac-
tive before the war in radiation research.
Until the war, biomedical researchers at these
universities had used radiation as a tool to study
biological systems and disease. The Manhattan
Project shifted this research to study the metab-
olism and health effects of radiation itself. For
example, experiments at Rochester included
studies of chronic low levels of radiation and
development of improved detection instruments.
Figure 40. Oak Ridge technicians reading dosimeters to detect
worker radiation exposures.
At the Chicago Met Lab, a group headed by
Robert Stone worked to define the mechanisms
of radiation injury from internal and external
exposure in the hope of detecting early damage
and providing remedial treatment. The Berkeley
group studied the effects of internal depositions
of fission products and came to focus on the
actinides, especially plutonium.
Early in 1942, officials of the Manhattan
Project realized they needed a special
medical program associated with the se-
cret project to build an atomic bomb.
Inhalation, ingestion, and injection of radioactive
materials were studied at all three universities
under Manhattan Project contracts. Most of
these studies involved animals, and their chief
purpose was to determine where in the body
these materials collected and at what rate the
materials were excreted. This information was
needed to judge the radiation dose from the ma-
terial and the estimate corresponding hazard.
While the animal studies provided important
data, MED researchers wanted precise human
data to establish firm radiation exposure guide-
lines. As a result, human studies were autho-
rized. Some researchers used themselves as sub-
jects: six researchers at the Met Lab drank solu-
tions of plutonium to study excretion rates.
Other studies used hospital patients, and
204
Chapter 2. Narratives and Record s Series — T o pical Areas: R a diation, Biom edical Sciences, & Isotope D istribution
included injections of radioactive polonium and
uranium in patients at Rochester’s Strong Me-
morial Hospital. Plutonium was also injected into
subjects in the Oak Ridge hospital, the Univer-
sity of Chicago Billings Hospital, the University
of California Medical School, and Strong Memo-
rial Hospital.
Figure 4 1 . An Oak Ridge isotope worker ( right) and a health
physics technician (circa 1 950).
The Manhattan Project shifted the focus
of biomedical research to study the me-
tabolism and health effects of radiation
itself
Data from these human experiments and related
research were used to set worker exposure
standards. These standards, in turn, were used
to analyze the various industrial processes to set
needs for shielding, ventilation, and other
worker-safety measures. The principle behind
these practices was to control exposures from
external radiation, and from internal radioactive
emitters entering the body from inhalation, in-
gestion, or wounds. Initially, these standards
were implemented from headquarters in Oak
Ridge or from the university research programs
that developed them. But as the production facil-
ities grew more familiar with the standards, re-
sponsibility for managing them became more lo-
calized. Inspection teams still visited the plants
periodically, but the expectation was that each
facility would operate health and safety pro-
grams based on established standards.
Postwar Research
After the war, there was a great deal of interest
in conducting further biomedical research with
radiation. This interest correlated with a vastly
enhanced knowledge of radioactive materials and
the recently developed ability to produce large
volumes of radioisotopes in nuclear reactors.
Scientists who had used radiation for metabolic
studies or for medical diagnosis and treatment
before the war now envisioned broad new ave-
nues of radiation research. The U.S. Govern-
ment shared this view, as did the public. Im-
pressed with the remarkable success of the Man-
hattan Project and awed by the power of the
atomic bomb, the nation was receptive to using
radioactivity to solve problems. There was also a
new willingness for Government to fund and
support research. As a result, the Manhattan
Project and later the AEG moved aggressively
into civilian biomedical research while continuing
defense-related applications.
Researchers used isotopes in many areas, includ-
ing industrial, agricultural, and chemical research.
By far the largest area of use was biomedical re-
search. Isotopes were ideal tools for learning
about basic functions, particularly the normal
chemical activities — metabolism — of biological
systems. Researchers wanted to know more
about metabolism to understand the many com-
plex mechanisms involved. This understanding
would be of particular value for epidemiologists,
immunologists, and others interested in learning
about why and how disease interferes with the
system.
Scientists who had used radiation for met-
abolic studies or for medical diagnosis
and treatment before the war now envi-
sioned broad new avenues of radiation
research.
A disease of major interest to biomedical re-
search was cancer. Cancer was a focal point be-
cause it was widespread and because radiation
had shown early promise as a possible treatment
and diagnostic tool. Some cancer tumors could
be destroyed or greatly reduced by radiation; if
205
Human Radiat ion Ex periments: The DOE Road ma p to the Story and the Record s
effective doses could be delivered to a cancer-
ous spot, patients could be helped. Iodine-131,
for example, was an effective treatment for
some thyroid cancers because the isotope had a
great affinity for locating in the thyroid gland.
Isotopes were also useful in diagnosing system
abnormalities associated with cancer.
Along with a rise in scientific interest in using
radiation to battle cancer, there was also some
related political interest during the postwar
years. In 1948, for example, Congress ear-
marked $5 million for AEC-sponsored cancer
research. As a result, the AEC could provide
research grants to various universities and was
also able to establish its own cancer research
hospitals at the University of Chicago, Oak Ridge
Institute of Nuclear Studies, and Brookhaven
National Laboratory.
The years immediately after the war were
characterized by optimism that radionu-
clides could combat diseases, particularly
cancer.
These special hospitals admitted patients
through physician referrals. Most of these peo-
ple had illnesses that had resisted conventional
treatment, and the avowed concept was to use
experimental treatments to help the patient and
to gather information that might help other pa-
tients. Since knowledge about effective treat-
ment doses from and specific physical reactions
to isotopes was still limited, much experimental
work went into developing methodologies and
techniques. Many internal and external radiation
applications were tested until the AEC closed
the hospitals in 1 974. This work laid the founda-
tions for modern nuclear medicine.
J. Newell Stannard, in Radiation and Health: A
History, describes two distinct periods in the
history of nuclear medicine. He cites an “era of
therapeutic intent” occurring from about 1948
to 1965. This was replaced by an “era of ever
more scanning and ever shorter half-life radionu-
clides,” which continues today. As noted above,
the years immediately after the war were char-
acterized by optimism that radionuclides could
combat diseases, particularly cancer. The AEC,
through its support for cancer research and its
isotopes distribution program, played a critical
role during this period. This role grew even
larger with the initiation of the U.S. “Atoms for
Peace" program during the mid-1950s.
Figure 42. Isotope processing buildings, Oak Ridge.
Atoms for Peace aimed to promote a wide range
of nonmilitary nuclear applications, including ci-
vilian power generation; mining and excavating;
and agricultural production. Interest in medical
uses for radiation, already booming, grew still
larger. Ambitious studies were underway using
radioiodine and astatine for thyroid problems,
gallium for bone tumors, and radioactively la-
beled antibodies for various tumors. Boron neu-
tron capture therapy, a process involving local-
ization of boron in brain tumors and irradiation
with reactor neutrons, was tried on more than
40 patients.
Many of these applications ultimately proved dis-
appointing, and by the mid-1960s medical use of
radionuclides was shifting away from therapy and
toward diagnosis. Stannard notes that unlike the
earlier era, AEC and Government laboratories
have played a limited role in these later nuclear
medicine applications. This is chiefly attributable
to the proven success of modern nuclear medi-
cine and its ability to support itself through pa-
tient medical fees. Much of this success came
through first radioiodine, and later technetium,
for diagnostic scanning of various organs and tis-
sues.
206
Chapter 2. Narratives and Recor ds Series — Topical A reas: Radia tion, Biomedical Scienc es, & Iso tope Distribu tion
Figure 43. Production of isotopes at Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
ca. 1946.
Isotope Distribution Program
A major reason for the postwar boom in isotope
use was the establishment of an isotopes distri-
bution program. In 1946, Paul Aebersold, for-
merly a scientist at the Berkeley Radiation Labo-
ratory and at Los Alamos, came to Oak Ridge to
establish an Isotopes Branch. Official announce-
ment of the isotope distribution program was
made in a June 1 946 issue of Science, 1 00 avail-
able isotopes were listed. The Isotopes Branch
received many applications. The first isotope re-
cipient was the Bernard Free Skin and Cancer
Hospital in St. Louis, which had requested
carbon- 1 4 for cancer research. Over the rest of
the year, the branch received several hundred
requests. Many of these initial applications were
delayed, however, because the requesting facili-
ties lacked personnel with radiation training.
Officials were not surprised by the need for ra-
diation training. While Manhattan Project staff
had received extensive instruction, no similar
teaching was available elsewhere. Eager to train
practitioners in the use of radiation, the Manhat-
tan Project established the Oak Ridge Institute
of Nuclear Science (ORINS) in 1946. Initially, the
facility focused on establishing resident fellow-
ship programs for work at the Oak Ridge Labo-
ratory. In 1948, ORINS began a nonresident iso-
tope training program. Many physicians and sci-
entists eager to use isotopes attended these
courses. The training consisted of lectures and
laboratory work focusing on various aspects of
physics, instrumentation, tracer applications, and
experimental procedures. These and related
offerings have proved of enduring popularity.
Initial development and oversight of the isotope
distribution program fell to an Interim Advisory
Committee on Isotope Distribution Policy. This
committee worked with the Clinton Laborato-
ries (predecessor to the Oak Ridge National
Laboratory) to set up production and distribu-
tion schedules. The committee also recom-
mended that the MED take four steps:
Figure 44. Measuring beta radiation from a sample of phosphorous-32
at Oak Ridge.
1 . Appoint a Subcommittee on Allocation and
Distribution of Isotopes to judge the merits
of each request,
2. Appoint a Subcommittee on Human Applica-
tions to review requests for use of isotopes
on humans,
3. Make isotopes available only through quali-
fied institutions, and
4. Establish priorities for allocation, to be
based on perceived value for publishable
research and human therapeutic uses.
These recommendations were accepted by the
Manhattan Project and its successor, the AEC.
Meeting later in 1946, the Subcommittee on Hu-
man Applications affirmed that its primary re-
sponsibility would be to review and approve iso-
tope requests involving human research. The
group also decreed that it would steer produc-
tion efforts to emphasize isotopes needed for
human therapeutic and diagnostic applications,
207
Human R a diatio n Experiments: The DOE Road map to the Story and the Records
with an emphasis on cancer. In addition, the sub-
committee endorsed the following policies:
• Create an official list of medical schools, hos-
pitals, and clinics prepared to receive iso-
topes.
• Appoint a local committee at each listed fa-
cility to review all isotopes requests.
• Direct requests to the Isotopes Division
from these local committees for all pro-
posed human uses.
• Appoint knowledgeable physicians and radi-
ologists to the local committees.
The AEC issued policies for the use of isotopes
in human studies. A primary control involved the
requirement that each requesting institution set
up a local isotope committee to evaluate all pro-
posals for use of isotopes on humans. These
committees were to include physicians trained in
internal medicine and hematology, and someone
experienced in protecting personnel against ion-
izing radiation. Qualified physicists and therapeu-
tic radiologists were to be members of such
committees or available in a consulting capacity.
Only after approval by its local committee could
a requesting organization apply to the Isotopes
Division for an allocation.
In completing Form AEC-3 1 3, “Application for
Radioisotope Procurement,” applicants had to
provide the name of the institution and the
name of the individual who would use or directly
supervise the material. Details regarding the
proposed use were also required, including:
• approval of the local isotopes committee,
• the types of cases for which materials would
be administered,
• the number of patients receiving materials,
• the frequency of treatment per patient,
• the nature of samples to be taken for mea-
surement, and
• radiation instruments and health protection
facilities.
Figure 45. Early method of handling radioactive sources at Los
Alamos.
The AEC required that each institution
requesting isotopes have a local isotope
committee to evaluate all proposals for
use of isotopes on humans.
Under the original policy, the Isotopes Division
would submit all applications involving the use of
humans to the Subcommittee on Human Appli-
cations for review. But in 1948, the AEC Advi-
sory Committee on Biology and Medicine con-
cluded that the subcommittee would only review
applications for the first human use of a particu-
lar isotope. If the first use was approved, future
uses of the isotope would not require subcom-
mittee review.
How much success the AEC had in implement-
ing and enforcing policies for application of iso-
topes to humans is unclear. Records indicate
that some local isotopes committees functioned
according to AEC guidelines. In addition, the
Isotopes Division produced detailed published
accounts of its operations regarding isotope au-
thorizations and their intended purpose, includ-
ing human use. (For an example, see isotopes:
An Eight Year Summary of Distribution and Utili-
zation, U.S. AEC, 1955.) The agency also placed
a heavy emphasis on training practitioners in iso-
tope use and safety practices.
On the other hand, no files documenting AEC
audits of isotope recipients have been found.
There is evidence that the AEC had reason to
208
Chapter 2. Narratives an d R ecords Serie s — Top ical Areas: Radiation, Bio me dical Sciences, & Isot o pe Distribution
enforce its rules. In a 1949 letter to all agency
National Laboratories, Shields Warren, Director
of the AEC Division of Biology and Medicine,
reminded managers that “the same clearances
for the use of isotopes should be obtained from
[the Subcommittee on Human Applications] as
would be required by the work to be done in an
institution not connected with an atomic energy
installation.”
Aebersold followed up with a memorandum to
the AEC New York Operations Office Manager
noting that full application, including Subcommit-
tee approval, was needed in all proposed human
uses, even in cases where the isotope was made
in the laboratory where it was to be used. Not-
ing that “this procedure has not been uniformly
followed in the past,” he enclosed application
forms and instructions.
Other Aspects of Biomedical Research
The major pursuit in radiation biomedical re-
search during and after World War II focused
on health effects in the interest of basic science
and therapeutic medical applications. The MED
and its successors also had related interests, in-
cluding radioecology, radiological warfare, civil
defense, nuclear fallout, and special technologies
such as nuclear-powered aircraft. Occasionally,
biomedical topics were studied in conjunction
with other activities. For example, the agency
studied radioecology — how radiation affects and
moves through the environment — with nuclear
weapons tests. On other occasions, officials or-
dered separate studies, such as radiological war-
fare tests or “Project Sunshine” fallout tissue re-
search.
In some cases, however, the connection between
mainstream activities such as cancer research and
the various other government re-search interests
was less clear. Knowledge gained from therapeu-
tic trials of a radionuclide, for example, might have
application to civil defense planning. Similarly, re-
sults noted from clinical treatments with external
radiation might be useful in designing shielding for
a nuclear aircraft engine.
Extensive radiation-related biomedical research
occurred from 1946 onward in both public and
private organizations. This is reflected partly in
Figure 46. Experimental cardiac pacemaker powered by plutonium,
ca. 1968.
isotope distribution statistics. Five years after
the start of distribution in 1 946, the AEC had
issued more than 13,000 procurement authori-
zations to more than 600 institutions. By the end
of 1954, the number of authorizations exceeded
37,000, and the institutions that received them
numbered over 2,400. By 1966, the AEC had
sent more than 200,000 isotope shipments to a
host of national and international entities. The
Manhattan Project and its successors played a
key role in developing and supporting biomedical
research, much as other Government agencies
stimulated various other scientific research dur-
ing the same era.
209
Hu man Ra di ation Experimen t s: The DOE Roa dm ap Co the Story and the Records
Human Plutonium Injection Experiments
The Manhattan Project and Plutonium
Health Hazards
Discovered in 1941 by Glenn Seaborg and oth-
ers at Berkeley, plutonium supported nuclear fis-
sion, a process that split atoms and released tre-
mendous energy. Plutonium became an urgently
needed material for one variety of atomic bomb;
uranium-235, the fissionable isotope of natural
uranium, was used in the other bomb type.
The first appreciable quantities of plutonium be-
came available by January 1 944. At that time,
Seaborg warned of its potential health hazards
and suggested immediate studies to learn its bio-
logical behavior. This was a critical issue: the lon-
ger the material stayed in the body, the more
damage it could do. Hundreds of workers would
soon be exposed to plutonium, and exposure
standards were necessary. Overexposure would
not only hurt workers; it could compromise se-
crecy and disrupt production schedules.
Sentiment grew among project medical
staff to administer known amounts of plu-
tonium to humans to derive precise excre-
tion data.
About 10 percent of the plutonium supply was
allocated for animal studies in January 1944. By
the summer of that year, those studies provided
enough information about plutonium retention
to justify removal of several Los Alamos workers
with high previous exposures from further work
with the material. Los Alamos had already had
several accidental human exposures to pluto-
nium, and the imminent prospect of working
with far larger quantities increased the desire for
even more metabolic information.
The early animal studies showed that different
species excreted known amounts of plutonium
at different rates. This meant that there was no
accurate way to correlate animal excretion data
to humans. As a result, sentiment grew among
project medical staff to administer known
amounts of plutonium to humans to derive pre-
cise excretion data. However, it was not until
the winter of 1944 that Los Alamos Health
Group personnel developed methods to detect
tracer-level concentrations of plutonium in ex-
creta. In February 1945, this group, headed by
Louis Hempelmann and supervised by Wright
Langham, used the procedure to monitor work-
ers for accidental plutonium uptake.
The Manhattan Project was asked to con-
sider “ that a hospital patient at either
Rochester or Chicago be chosen for injec-
tion from 1 to 10 micrograms of material
[plutonium].”
With a proven method to detect small amounts
of plutonium in excreta, Los Alamos personnel
met on March 23, 1 945, with Robert
Oppenheimer and Colonel Hymer Friedell of the
Manhattan Engineer District (MED) to discuss
“the medical problems of this project and their
relationship to the Medical Research Program of
the Manhattan District.” In a memorandum writ-
ten three days after the meeting, Louis
Hempelmann stated that the Manhattan Project
was asked to consider “that a hospital patient at
either Rochester or Chicago be chosen for in-
jection from I to 1 0 micrograms of material
[plutonium] and that the excreta be sent to this
laboratory for analysis." The Manhattan District
was also asked to help make arrangements for
this "human tracer experiment.” Such arrange-
ments were made, and an MED medical officer
administered the first human plutonium injection
on April 10, 1945, at the Oak Ridge Hospital.
The Experiments, Part 1
How all the injections were coordinated — or
even if they were coordinated — is unclear. Fol-
lowing the Oak Ridge test, injections were given
at the Billings Hospital at the University of Chi-
cago on April 26, 1945, and at the University of
California Hospital in San Francisco on May 14,
1945. By late June, Manhattan Project contrac-
tors at the University of Rochester’s Strong Me-
morial Hospital developed a detailed plan for
“rapid (I year) Completion of Human Tracer
Studies.” These studies were to include pluto-
nium, uranium, polonium, and radioactive lead.
210
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Topical Areas: Human Plutonium Injection Experiments
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Figure 47. Telegram from University of Rochester notifying Los Alamos of three plutonium injections, 1945.
Over the next several months this plan was re-
vised, and on September 18, 1945, Wright
Langham sent the most recent version to Colo-
nel Stafford Warren, Chief of the Manhattan
District Medical Section, noting that “you and
Col. Friedell, will of course, have final say as to
whether or not the experiment goes through in
accordance with this plan.”
The Rochester plutonium experiment protocol
called for 10 subjects to be admitted to the
Strong Memorial Hospital metabolism ward in
groups of four per month for the first two
months and two for the third month. After injec-
tion, samples of blood, urine, and feces were to
be shipped to Langham at Los Alamos for analy-
sis. Documents show that, from October 1 945
to July 1946, Rochester injected I I patients.
One of the later patients (designated as HP- 1 I)
died of pneumonia and other preexisting ail-
ments 6 days after his February 20 injection.
Samuel Bassett at Rochester described this as an
“acute experiment” that did not involve collec-
tion of excreta, but that did yield organs and
other autopsy material that was sent to Los
Alamos for study.
When notified of HP- 1 I, Langham told Bassett, “If
you should decide to do another terminal case, I
suggest you use 50 micrograms [of plutonium]
instead of 5. This would permit the analysis of
much smaller samples and make my work consid-
erably easier.” Langham also stated, “I have just
received word that Chicago is performing two
terminal experiments using 95 micrograms each. I
feel reasonably certain there would be no harm in
using larger amounts of material if you are sure
the case is a terminal one.”
Langham told Bassett, “If you should de-
cide to do another terminal case, I suggest
you use 50 micrograms [of plutonium ]
instead of 5. This would permit the analy-
sis of much smaller samples and make my
work considerably easier. ”
The two Chicago experiments took place at Bill-
ings Hospital on December 27, 1945. Both sub-
jects died of preexisting ailments shortly after
injections of 94.91 micrograms of plutonium.
Human Radiation Experiments: The DO E Roadmap to the Story and t he Records
Experimental protocols exist for the Rochester
studies. Langham and others who directed the
research also described in broad terms how sub-
jects were to be selected. Generally, the choice
fell on older individuals ( 1 3 of whom were 45 or
older) with limited life expectancy. (Ten of the
16 who were tracked died within 10 years.) Four
subjects did, however, live more than 20 years
after the experiments.
Although several research reports by others
appeared earlier, Langham and several colleagues
at Los Alamos compiled the most substantial
account of the plutonium injection experiments.
They based their conclusions chiefly on the
Rochester study. Issued as Los Alamos report
LA- 1 151 in September 1950, Distribution and
Excretion of Plutonium Administered Intrave-
nously to Man described the experiments, tabu-
lated the data on plutonium metabolism, and
derived an empirical formula for calculating re-
tained plutonium from urinalysis. Although
LA- 1 151 itself remained restricted until 1980,
information about the plutonium studies made
its way into the scientific literature shortly after
the injections took place.
Efforts to find and study surviving pa-
tients from the experiments of the 1940s
ultimately triggered controversy.
The Experiments, Part 2
During the early 1970s, Patricia W. Durbin, a
biophysicist at the Lawrence Radiation Labora-
tory, reevaluated Langham’s plutonium excretion
data. One reason Durbin could improve on
Langham’s results was the unexpected availability
of data from long-term survivors. During her re-
search, she learned that one subject had lived
for 20 years after being injected. Painstaking de-
tective work revealed that four other subjects
were also still alive in the early 1970s. With the
AEC’s approval, support from the Center for
Human Radiobiology at Argonne National Labo-
ratory, and cooperation from the University of
Rochester’s Strong Memorial Hospital, three of
the four survivors were reexamined in 1973. Re-
searchers gathered and promptly published new
data on long-term patterns of plutonium reten-
tion and excretion.
Efforts to find and study these surviving subjects
ultimately triggered controversy. In the time
since the work had been done, the Government
had adopted requirements mandating that sub-
jects give informed consent as a condition of
research. Questions arose whether the pluto-
nium subjects provided consent for the original
experiments or for the 1973 follow-up examina-
tions. The ensuing investigation resulted in two
internal AEC reports issued in August 1974.
Both concluded that only one subject may have
provided any kind of consent. The other 17 par-
ticipated with little verifiable knowledge of the
experiment or its risks. Moreover, the reports
found that the 1973 follow-up studies were also
not done with informed consent from the sub-
jects. The three subjects were not told they had
been injected with plutonium for experimental
purposes, nor why they had been asked to re-
turn to the hospital.
Although the AEC did not publicly release these
reports, the agency’s successor, the Energy Re-
search and Development Administration, issued
a fact sheet on the matter in 1976. This issuance
provided details on the experiments and briefly
discussed results from the 1974 AEC inquiry on
informed consent.
The Plutonium Experiments and the
Public
Publications based on the plutonium studies began
to appear in the medical literature as early as
1948. In several articles during the 1950s and
early 1960s, Langham explained the technique for
measuring excreted plutonium and referred to
the validating research on plutonium metabolism
in humans. Some information, however, remained
classified for a number of years afterward.
What the scientific literature and other
information about the experiments did not
provide was the names of the subjects or
their personal stories.
The public first learned about experiments in
1976, after ERDA issued the fact sheet noted
above. Several newspapers carried stories
emphasizing the absence of informed consent
212
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Topical Areas: Human Plutonium Injection Experiments
and raising questions about medical ethics, but
the issue seemed to arouse little public concern.
Ten years later, a congressional committee is-
sued a report that criticized the plutonium injec-
tions and about 30 other Federal human radia-
tion experiments. Commonly known as the
Markey report after subcommittee chairman
Edward J. Markey (D-Mass.), this document again
stimulated only limited media attention at the
time.
What the scientific literature and other informa-
tion about the experiments did not provide was
the names of the subjects or their personal sto-
ries. This approach was pursued by Eileen
Welsome of the Albuquerque Tribune , who in
November 1993, published a series on the ex-
periments and its subjects. The author had
hunted through government reports, scientific
journals, and newspaper files to piece together
facts about the experiments, including the names
and other personal details of several subjects.
At a December 1 993 press conference, Secre-
tary of Energy Hazel R. O’Leary discussed the
plutonium experiments in conjunction with re-
leasing much formerly classified information on a
variety of subjects. As part of a new policy of
openness, she also committed the Department
to revealing the full scope and details of human
radiation experiments done by the agency and
its predecessors. The story of the experiments
received extensive national attention and led to
public demands that the Federal government
make full disclosure on the topics.
One year after the Secretary’s commitment, the
Department has found, declassified, and made
available much documentation relating to the
plutonium injections and other human radiation
experiments. Now under investigation by the
Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Ex-
periments and others, this information will pro-
vide the basis for a comprehensive ethical analy-
sis of these studies.
A
213
Human Radiatio n Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
Environmental Releases of Radiation
Introduction
Generally speaking, these releases do not fit
the definition of human experimentation, in that
they were not undertaken with the intent of
testing the effects of radiation in humans or de-
signed to measure human exposure.
The scope of DOE’s document search has en-
compassed numerous environmental radiation
releases. In looking for pertinent records, it has
become apparent that such releases were typi-
cally conducted as site projects, meaning that
pertinent records often still reside at the sites.
Record series for releases are therefore found
under the section dealing with the site where
they were conducted. For example, the Green
Run series are described in the Hanford section.
This narrative outlines the history of the perti-
nent DOE and predecessor agency environmen-
tal radiation releases, including radiological war-
fare activities.
Some of these events fit the definition of a
human radiation experiment, while others
do not. Some are ambiguous.
In November 1993, the U.S. General Accounting
Office (GAO) released a Fact Sheet entitled
“Examples of Post World War II Radiation Re-
leases at U.S. Nuclear Sites.” The report focused
on three occurrences:
• the 1949 Green Run test at Hanford,
• radiation warfare tests at Oak Ridge and the
Dugway Proving Grounds from 1948 to
1952, and
• the 1 950 atmospheric radiation-tracking
tests at Los Alamos.
Section 2(b) of the January 15, 1994, Executive
Order establishing the Advisory Committee on
Human Radiation Experiments directed the com-
mittee to evaluate the radiation releases outlined
in the GAO Fact Sheet, and “[a]ny other similar
experiment that may later be identified.”
A subsequent memorandum from the Secretary
of the Cabinet directed several agencies, including
DOE, to find and inventory records related to
human radiation experiments, including those re-
lated to intentional environmental releases, de-
fined in Paragraph 2(a)(1) as
[experiments involving intentional envi-
ronmental releases of radiation that (A)
were designed to test human health ef-
fects of ionizing radiation; or (B) were
designed to test the extent of human
exposure to ionizing radiation.
The environmental releases described below are
grouped into two main categories:
• Releases associated with military pur-
poses — this category includes radiological
warfare, nuclear-powered aircraft, the
Green Run, and the Los Alamos Bayo
Canyon tests.
• Nonmiiitary programs, including various
reactor-related tests.
Many of these releases are now under study by
entities other than DOE to arrive at independent
conclusions regarding potential health effects.
Some of these events fit the definition of a hu-
man radiation experiment, while others do not.
Some are ambiguous. Yet rather than choose
among these releases, DOE has taken an inclu-
sive approach. The releases described below,
therefore, include events where individuals were
purposefully exposed to radiation, events where
such exposures were inadvertent or incidental,
and events with no known human exposures.
Please note, however, that this listing is by no
means a full accounting of all agency environ-
mental radiation releases.
Radiation Releases for Military Purposes
The first National nuclear undertaking —
development of the atomic bomb — focused
exclusively on military objectives. The Atomic
Energy Act of 1946 called for the development
of an atomic energy program “subject at all
times to the paramount objective of assuring the
common defense and security.” Through the
mid-1950s, AEC activities continued to focus on
atomic energy for weapons development and for
214
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Se ries — Topic al Ar eas: Env ir onmental Releases of Radiatio n
other military purposes. Early AEC intentional
releases of radioactivity included testing for ra-
diological warfare and for other purposes; all but
a handful of these tests were originally secret.
Known intentional releases for military purposes
are described below.
Radiological warfare: An overview — The Man-
hattan Project and its successors investigated
various aspects of radiological warfare, which
would use radioactive sources to contaminate a
targeted area. Nuclear explosions would not be
involved. Rather, radioactive material would be
placed in a casing for battlefield dispersal. Among
the purposes envisioned for these weapons
were to injure enemy soldiers, block troop ad-
vances, and contaminate enemy cities. Radiologi-
cal warfare weapons also were conceived as a
tool to instill fear in adversaries and to serve as
a deterrent to their use against America.
Ideas about radiological warfare surfaced even
before the U.S. began its atomic bomb program.
Key atomic scientists Ernest O. Lawrence and
Arthur Holly Compton proposed a top priority
program to develop radioactive weapons in
1941. An atomic bomb program was actually
given a lower priority at that point, in part be-
cause it was far more complex than producing
fission products for use on a battlefield or an
enemy city. While most attention soon shifted
to the bomb program, anxieties persisted that
Germany might develop radiological weapons for
use against American or English cities. The Man-
hattan Project even sent radiation detection in-
struments to Washington, New York, Chicago,
and other cities to prepare for such an attack.
Serious consideration was given to radiological
warfare after the war. There was concern that a
foreign power, frustrated in its attempt to de-
velop an atomic bomb, might instead turn to
radiological warfare. In 1947, the Armed Forces
Special Weapons Project of the Department of
Defense (DOD) asked the AEC to form a com-
mittee to study the subject. A year later, follow-
ing the recommendations of its General Advi-
sory Committee and the Advisory Committee
on Biology and Medicine, the AEC committed to
further investigations. Areas of study included
laboratory research on radiological agents, field
toxicology studies on animals and vegetation,
and methods of producing and dispersing radio-
logical agents.
In 1948, AEC and DOD formed a special panel
to study defensive and offensive radiological war-
fare. This panel became known by the name of
its chairman, W.A. Noyes, Jr. Defensive aspects
included assessment of potential radiological
agents, including delivery systems and biological
effects. Methods of medical treatment and public
education were also considered. Offensive as-
pects focused on the potential use of radioiso-
topes to deny an enemy the use of an area for a
period of time. The Noyes panel was set up to
help define the AEC radiological warfare pro-
gram, particularly the production of radioactive
sources and the study of biomedical effects.
Within the military, the Army Chemical Corps
assumed responsibility for dissemination meth-
ods and protection measures, including design,
selection, and testing of tactical weapons.
Anxieties persisted that Germany might
develop radiological weapons for use
against American or English cities.
Also in 1948, a study panel chaired by Franklin
McLean of the University of Chicago was estab-
lished. This panel differed from the Noyes group
in that it focused solely on biological and medical
aspects of radiological warfare. The Chicago
Toxicity Laboratory, an Army Chemical Corps
contractor, helped in reviewing literature and in
suggesting the necessary experimental work. Us-
ing animals, the laboratory studied the toxicity of
radioactive zirconium, tantalum, columbium, and
lanthanum following inhalation, bloodstream ab-
sorption, and ingestion. Plans were made to co-
ordinate this research with work at other AEC
facilities, such as the research in diagnosis and
treatment of radiation sickness and deposition of
radioactive materials in tissue.
The Noyes panel functioned until November
1950, when it voted to disband. The committee
recommended a low priority for radiological
warfare, citing the need for bomb production
and the limited success in producing waste fis-
sion products in amounts that could be useful
for radiological warfare. The panel saw some
215
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
limited cases where radiological warfare offered
potential advantages over the atomic bomb, such
as for use against targets where it might be
desired to preclude human presence for some
time while avoiding permanent destruction. The
panel also recommended consolidation of radio-
logical warfare and atomic bomb civil defense
programs. AEC continued some research and
production of potential radiological agents until
all such work was ended in 1954. Army Chemi-
cal Corps radiological research and development
ended in 1 953.
Oak Ridge radiological warfare releases — In
1948, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL)
conducted three field experiments to support
the Noyes panel. ORNL was responsible for
testing radioactive lanthanum (RaLa) and radio-
active tantalum, and also for working with
Hanford to develop potential agents such as tan-
talum, zirconium, and columbium. For the RaLa
tests, a strip was cleared in a field near the X-IO
reactor area. Sources were placed and measure-
ments taken at varying distances. The first test
used three sources of approximately 1280, 100,
and 20 curies each. The second test used only
the 1280 curie source. Upon completion of the
tests, the sources were removed.
A test involving radioactive tantalum was con-
ducted shortly afterward. The experiment was
conducted in a rectangular plot near the K-25
gaseous diffusion plant and involved over 250
tantalum wires placed in a grid pattern. ORNL
took measurements of radiation intensities at
various points and removed the wires. None of
these tests were designed to yield biomedical
information.
Radiological warfare releases at Dugway Proving
Ground — The AEC worked with the Army
Chemical Corps and the Air Force to develop
munitions for radioactive warfare products. Muni-
tions field testing took place at the Dugway Prov-
ing Ground in Utah, which was established by the
Army in 1 942 for biological and chemical warfare
tests. Between 1 949 and 1 952, there were at
least 1 4 radiological tests at Dugway. Dispersal
tests measured the rate and extent of the spread
of radioactive material following a release. Con-
tamination tests focused on the effect of radioac-
tivity on land and structures. Decontamination
tests evaluated the effectiveness of cleansing
methods. Documentation uncovered in DOE’s
search does not show a biomedical research com-
ponent of AEC participation in these tests.
The tests usually involved an air release of radio-
active material followed by analysis of the test
area. Data from measuring devices placed at var-
ious heights and distances were collected to
evaluate weapons strategy and tactics. Precau-
tions were taken against off-site contamination,
including scheduling tests when wind conditions
were most favorable.
The documents found by DOE do not
show that human experimentation was
involved in the Dugway tests.
The Dugway test series began late in 1949. The
purpose of the first tests was to study ballistic
dispersal from an air-dropped device. Particles of
tantalum- 1 32 were prepared for the tests by
Oak Ridge National Laboratory and loaded into
cluster devices. The Air Force dropped the de-
vices, which dispersed material within a square
mile. Additional testing continued from 1950
through 1952 to evaluate explosives used to dis-
perse radioactive agents, primarily tantalum. De-
contamination studies were also conducted.
AEC’s primary responsibilities for these tests
continued to be the provision of nuclear materi-
als. By late 1950, tantalum was scarce and was
replaced by zirconium-niobium as the primary
radiological testing agent. The documents found
by DOE do not show that human experimenta-
tion was involved in the Dugway tests. The only
known evidence of human exposure reviewed
involves a crane operator accidentally exposed
during a tantalum test.
The Green Run — The Air Force and the AEC
conducted a test at Hanford in December 1949
to test a methodology for monitoring the
emerging Soviet nuclear program. Known as the
Green Run, the test aimed to learn if nuclear
materials could be detected at long distances
from their source. There was a strong desire to
answer this question because the Soviets had
tested their first atomic bomb in August 1949
and the government wished to gather data about
Soviet capabilities.
216
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Topical Areas: E nvironme ntal R eleases of Radiation
Figure 48. Plutonium separation building ("canyon”) at Hanford.
The term “Green Run” refers to the use of
“green” irradiated reactor fuel cooled (allowed to
become less radioactive through atomic decay)
for only sixteen days — instead of the usual ninety
to one hundred days — before processing. The
fuel was dissolved in nitric acid and the solution
processed to separate plutonium. Dissolution of
this “green” fuel resulted in the discharge of much
larger quantities of radioactive iodine and xenon
than would result from the processing of a like
amount of older fuel. The plant’s off-gas scrub-
bers, which in normal operations substantially re-
duced the release of radioactive iodine from the
stacks, were intentionally shut down.
The official test account issued in May 1 950 re-
ports that about 7,800 curies of iodine and
20,000 curies of xenon were released into the
atmosphere in Southeast Washington and Ore-
gon. This iodine release was almost twice the
pre-test projection. Weather conditions at the
time of the test were unfavorable, and radioac-
tive gases were dispersed over populated areas.
Radioactive iodine was detected on the ground,
vegetation, and water. Although the amount of
the release was not deemed unsafe at the time,
the Health Instruments Division stated in a 1950
report that “the resultant activity came close
enough to significant levels, and its distribution
differed enough from simple meteorological pre-
dictions that [we] would resist a proposed repe-
tition of the test.” Radioactivity released during
the Green Run was, however, dwarfed by the
amount of radioactive materials released during
routine production activities at Hanford in the
1944-1948 period, before the installation of
emission reduction equipment.
Weather conditions at the time of the
Green Run test were unfavorable , and
radioactive gases were dispersed over pop-
ulated areas .
DOE has declassified all technical data associated
with the test and DOD conducted a declassifica-
tion review in 1 994 that released additional infor-
mation. Only a few details remain classified by
DOD: The December 1 993 GAO Fact Sheet
noted that GAO had reviewed the classified ma-
terial and believed that it contained no documen-
tation showing that “the test was intended to be a
radiation warfare experiment or a field test of ra-
diobiological effects on humans.” Both OHRE and
the Advisory Committee on Human Radiation
Experiments staff with security clearances have
also reviewed the classified material. The test did
result in the exposure of populated areas near
the site. These exposures, and exposures result-
ing from other Hanford emissions, have been esti-
mated through work of the Hanford Environmen-
tal Dose Reconstruction Project, a multi-year un-
dertaking managed by the U.S. Centers for Dis-
ease Control and Prevention.
Los Alamos Bayo Canyon RaLa tests — From
1944 to 1962, Los Alamos conducted 254 open-
air implosion physics tests in Bayo Canyon. The
purpose of the program was to test weapons
designs using conventional high explosives and
radioactive lanthanum (RaLa), a short-lived but
intense radioactive source. Tests were per-
formed specifically to diagnose material motion
and compression through high-speed x-ray pho-
tographs of the earliest moments of the implo-
sion. The sources involved contained from
around a hundred to several thousand curies of
lanthanum- 1 40; some strontium-90 impurities
were also present.
Design details of the RaLa test device and the
implosion process remain classified because the
information is judge to be of potential use to a
nuclear proliferator. Data on how much RaLa
217
H uman Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
was used in each test is, however, unclassified
and has been made public. While the highest
concentration of radioactivity after a test was
around the site of detonation, offsite contamina-
tion was periodically detected. Los Alamos Na-
tional Laboratory has an effort underway to esti-
mate the offsite doses resulting from the Bayo
Canyon tests.
Figure 49. (top and bottom ) A Los Alamos Radioactive Lanthanum
(RaLa) test in Bayo Canyon.
Los Alamos Atmospheric Tracking Tests — The
1993 GAO report listed four tracking tests con-
ducted at Los Alamos in 1 950. The report stated
that the tests were conducted by Los Alamos
and the U.S. Air Force to track radioactive
clouds using an experimental aircraft instrument.
Two of these tests were conducted during RaLa
implosion tests. The Air Force Cambridge Re-
search Laboratories used an aircraft to evaluate
an experimental instrument for measuring
atmospheric electrical conductivity in an attempt
to measure airborne radioactivity. These tests
took place during March and April of 1950. A
third detection study was scheduled during a
RaLa test, but was canceled when the test cloud
drifted over restricted airspace.
The fourth event, conducted by the Air Force in
July 1950, also focused on measuring atmo-
spheric electrical conductivity. This test used a
lanthanum- 1 40 source to test air conductivity in
a static known radiation field. The test involved
no explosives or release of radioactive material.
At the completion of the experiment the source
was removed.
The Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion Program
(ANP) — General Electric ran the aircraft nuclear
propulsion program (ANP) for the U.S. Air
Force. Its goal was to design a nuclear reactor
suitable for use in aircraft. The program was a
follow-on to the unsuccessful Nuclear Engine for
the Propulsion of Aircraft (NEPA) program of
the late 1 940s and early 1 950s. Safety concerns
and engineering problems led to the cancellation
of this program as well in the early 1960s.
Three major test series at the AEC National
Reactor Testing Station in Idaho were con-
ducted for the ANP program. The first were the
Initial Engine Tests (IET), designed to test reac-
tor assemblies. At least 26 of these tests were
conducted from 1955 to 1 96 1 , most of which
involved some release of radioactivity into the
environment. There were, however, no known
biomedical aspects of these tests. The most sig-
nificant releases took place during Initial Engine
Test #3. During this test, damage to the fuel
elements resulted in the release of about 300
curies of iodine- 1 3 1 .
General Electric ran the aircraft nuclear
propulsion program (ANP) for the U.S.
Air Force.
The second series was the Fuel Element Burn
Tests A and B, conducted in March 1957. Nuclear
fuel assemblies were heated to determine fission
product release in the case of aircraft crash and
resulting fire. The tests were not classified and
218
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Topical Areas: Environmental Releases of Radiation
may have resulted in some off site exposures. The
third test series, the Fission Product Field Release
Tests (FPFRT), took place from July through Sep-
tember 1958. Nine tests were undertaken to
measure fission product release, diffusion of ra-
dioactivity in the air, deposition of radioactivity on
vegetation and the ground, and uptake by animals
and plants, including possible biological effects. All
of the experiments were done with extensive
field monitoring to verify predicted test behavior.
The tests included a biological component run by
the University of Rochester, which used dogs,
rabbits and rats. No intentional exposure of hu-
man subjects to radiation is suggested in the doc-
uments reviewed.
Additional fission product field release tests took
place at the Dugway Proving Grounds in Utah.
The tests were conducted in essentially the same
manner as those done in Idaho and involved some
intentional environmental release of radiation.
These tests are separate from the radiological
warfare experiments described above that took
place at Dugway in the early 1 950s.
Radiation Releases for Nonmilitary
Purposes
In 1 954, the Atomic Energy Act was amended and
the AEC given authority to declassify certain ar-
eas of nuclear technology to promote commercial
nuclear power and international peaceful atomic
energy activities. Concurrent with the develop-
ment of these applications, public concern about
the hazards of fallout from atmospheric nuclear
weapons testing was increasing. The releases dis-
cussed below are closely tied to these concerns
and include analysis of fallout effects, reactor
safety testing, nuclear rocket and aircraft tests,
and plant safety testing. With one exception,
these experiments were not classified.
In 1962 and 1963, Hanford intentionally
released small amounts iodine-131 to study
the dispersion of radioactive iodine into
the air and soil.
Hanford: 1962 and 1963 releases — In 1962 and
1963, Hanford intentionally released small
amounts of iodine- 1 3 1 to study the dispersion of
radioactive iodine into the air and soil. These
tests were related to AEC biomedical studies of
fallout. The 1962 release involved 8.3 curies of
iodine- 1 3 1 emitted from the Hanford Redox
Plant, a plutonium processing facility. During the
emission, the plume trajectories were plotted
from meteorological data and samples were col-
lected across the predicted plume trajectories at
several altitudes and at distances up to 50 miles
from the plant.
Following the emission, sets of vegetation and
milk samples were collected. Designed to study
the spread and behavior of iodine- 1 3 1 released to
the atmosphere, the 1 963 test provided data to
estimate the hazards potentially associated with
weapons testing or nuclear accidents. The test
released 1 20 millicuries of iodine- 131. Two hu-
man volunteers, Hanford employees, stood in the
path of the release to obtain data on inhalation
uptake. Air, soil and plant data were collected and
dogs were also used to measure inhalation.
The Controlled Environmental Release
Tests involved intentional releases to mea-
sure released radionuclides in the air,
vegetation, cows, and milk.
Idaho National Engineering Laboratory (INEL):
Controlled Environmental Radioiodine Tests
(CERT) — The CERT activities involved inten-
tional releases of radioiodine to the environment
and were intended to evaluate the health haz-
ards of reactor accidents. Twenty-four tests un-
dertaken from 1963 to 1968 were designed to
develop models for predicting movement of ra-
dioiodine through the air-vegetation-cow-milk-
human food chain. CERT tests I, 2, 7, 10, and I I
involved human volunteers breathing air or
drinking milk containing small amounts of radio-
iodine. In the first test, seven people had their
thyroids measured after drinking milk from cows
that had grazed in a pasture with radioiodine
deposits. In the remaining four tests, individuals
were exposed during radioiodine release over
the pasture and their inhalation uptake was mea-
sured. The experimental design for the other
CERT tests apparently did not involve exposure
of human subjects.
219
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roa dmap to the Story and the Records
Figure 50. Measuring intentional radiation releases at the Idaho
experimental dairy farm (circa 1 964).
IN EL: Controlled Environmental Release Tests
(CERT) — This test series, also known as CERT,
involved intentional releases with isotopes other
than radioiodine and, like those described above,
were designed to measure released radionu-
clides in the air, vegetation, cows, and milk. The
radionuclides released in this series, running
from 1968 through 1977, included sulphur-35,
chromium-51, potassium-42, cesium- 1 34, and
cerium- 141. The experimental design involved
no intentional exposure of humans radiation.
Figure 51 . Checking radioactivity after a Controlled Environmental
Radioiodine Test (CERT) in 1966.
INEL: Special Power Excursion Reactor Tests
(SPERT) — When the AEC began to promote
commercial nuclear power during the mid-1950s,
it initiated reactor safety research programs at
INEL. Initial concerns focused on the hazards of a
nuclear excursion, or runaway chain reaction. The
Special Power Excursion Reactor Tests (SPERT)
at Idaho included destructive tests in which reac-
tor cores were intentionally damaged by nuclear
excursions. These tests resulted in limited re-
leases of radioactive materials into the environ-
ment. The SPERT-I testing program consisted of
three series of tests done in 1 962 through 1 964
to evaluate the factors involved in two actual test
reactor accidents. Exposure to humans was not
planned and no exposure is suggested in docu-
ments collected.
INEL: Loss of Fluid Test (LOFT) — The LOFT
series involved eight power reactor safety-re-
lated tests conducted under the direction of the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development, an international group. The final
testing simulated a small-break, loss-of-coolant
accident in a commercial reactor similar to the
1979 Three Mile Island accident. The test re-
sulted in fuel meltdown and release of fission
products to the primary coolant system. Follow-
ing the test, leakage from the fission product
monitoring system and the primary coolant sys-
tem allowed some fission products into the reac-
tor building and subsequently was released
through a monitored pathway to environment
The Loss of Fluid Test resulted in fuel
meltdown and release of fission products
to the primary coolant system.
INEL: Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power
(SNAP) program — The SNAP program was de-
signed to develop small, lightweight nuclear power
sources for satellites, spacecraft, Antarctic
weather stations, and navigation buoys. The SNAP
1 0A transient (SNAPTRAN) Test series was con-
ducted to evaluate radiation safety problems of
small space reactors. A test version of the reactor
was destroyed during SNAPTRAN-3 in 1 964 to
determine the radiological consequences of im-
mersion of a SNAP reactor in water or wet earth.
The test was conducted with extensive radiologi-
cal and meteorological support, surveillance and
controls; small amounts of radioactive material
220
Chapter 2. Narratives and Records Series — Topical Areas: Environmental Releases of Radiation
were released. SNAPTRAN— 2, conducted in
1 966, provided data on the dynamic response,
fuel behavior, and inherent shutdown mechanisms
of the reactors in the open air. The experiment
did not involve intentional exposure of people to
radiation.
INEL: Diffusion tests with the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA ) —
NOAA conducted a meteorological research pro-
gram with the AEC to improve the characteriza-
Figure 52. A nuclear reactor sitting on a test cell pad prior to
preliminary tests at the Nevada Test Site (circa 1 968). This Phoebus 2
design was part of the Rover project to develop a nuclear-propelled
rocket capable of interplanetary travel, (photo: Los Alamos
Scientific Laboratory)
tion of the transport and diffusion of pollutants in
the atmosphere. These studies focused on deter-
mining the differences in urban and rural diffusion
patterns. NOAA conducted four Relative Diffu-
sion Tests (RDT) from 1 967 through 1 969 using
small amounts of radioactive tracers.
The Long Distance Diffusion Tests (LDDT) were
jointly conducted by the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration and the AEC
Health Services Laboratory. Taking place in 1971
and 1972, these tests involved measurements of
controlled releases. Known quantities of radio-
active and non-radioactive tracers were released
from the INEL Chemical Processing Plant under
monitored meteorological conditions. Air con-
centrations were measured at distances up to 80
kilometers from the release point.
INEL: Other tests — The Organic Moderated Sol-
vent Burning Experiment (OMRE) tested the fea-
sibility of open-air incineration of contaminated
solvents. Conducted in 1 960, the test burned
about 400 gallons of diesel oil, xylene,
methylchor, and water. Small amounts of radia-
tion were released. The Experimental Cloud Ex-
posure Study (EXCES) was conducted from 1968
to 1 970 and involved release of xenon- 1 33 and
sodium-24 with the subsequent measurement of
exposure rates at several downwind distances.
Nevada Test Site: Kiwi tests — Kiwi was the
name given to the reactors designed and tested
by Los Alamos for the space program known as
Rover. Rover began in 1955, and reactor testing
took place at the Nevada Test Site between
1959 and 1966. The Kiwi tests included plume
sampling done by the Air Force to measure ra-
dioactive reactor effluent. During a Kiwi test,
aircraft crews participated in tests to measure
thermal neutrons. Prior to the test, some crew
members swallowed gamma measuring film
capsules. During the test, crews wore different
types of gamma film badges and flew in planes
equipped with various measuring devices. After
the test, the measuring films were analyzed and
some crew were given whole body counts.
The Kiwi Transient Nuclear Test simu-
lated a worst case accident occurring dur-
ing the launch of a nuclear-powered
spacecraft.
The Kiwi Transient Nuclear Test (TNT), con-
ducted in 1 965, simulated a worst case accident
occurring during the launch of a nuclear-powered
spacecraft. The test involved a controlled nuclear
excursion resulting in partial vaporization of the
reactor core. This created a radioactive plume
that, while low in radioactivity, was detectable far
off-site. Los Alamos collected environmental data
from the test point to approximately 50 miles
221
Human Radiation Experiments: The DO E Roadmap to t he Story and th e Records
downwind. The U.S. Public Health Service moni-
tored the cloud to beyond 200 miles downwind,
which extended to Los Angeles and the Pacific
Ocean.
Paducah, KY, Gaseous Diffusion Plant: uranium
hexafluoride tests — Four deliberate releases of
uranium hexafluoride (UF 6 ) were made to the
atmosphere at the Paducah Gaseous Diffusion
Plant. Two occurred in 1955; the other two
took place in 1974. The tests were conducted to
study the airborne behavior of UF 6 . There is no
record of human experimentation associated
with these tests.
Oak Ridge K-25 Plant: UF 6 out/eakage tests —
During 1976, fifty-seven tests were conducted at
the Oak Ridge K-25 plant, resulting in the re-
lease of uranium hexafluoride into the environ-
ment. The purpose was to evaluate the plant
detectors in conjunction with a plant operation
upgrade. The releases were considered small in
comparison to routine production releases at
the facility.
Oak Ridge environmental research areas — The
Oak Ridge Health Physics Division established
various environmental research areas to evalu-
ate the behavior of radionuclides in the environ-
ment. These areas functioned in conjunction
with a radioecology program begun in 1954. Lab-
oratory and field studies used 18 different radio-
nuclides to study the uptake, accumulation, and
movement of isotopes in terrestrial and aquatic
food chains; rates of translocation in plants; con-
sumption of food and turnover of isotopes by
terrestrial and aquatic insects and other inverte-
brates, fish and, mammals; and reentry of iso-
topes into the soil through fungi, bacteria, and
soil animals.
Thirty-eight different environmental research
areas have been identified at Oak Ridge. Various
types of trees were inoculated and sprayed with
cesium isotopes to simulate fallout, and the ma-
terial tracked through the leaves and roots to
the soil and to foliage-feeding insects. Radio-
cesium was also applied to grass and agricultural
plants, such as soybeans, sorghum, and peanuts
for transport evaluation. Rodents and arthro-
pods were also studied in this manner.
Figure 53. Separating radioactive carbon from material bombarded
in the Oak Ridge nuclear reactor.
In addition, a field study of stream flow genera-
tion using natural and injected tracers was con-
ducted with the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology. The study focused on two forested wa-
tersheds, the Bickford Watershed in central
Massachusetts and the West Fork of the Walker
Branch Watershed in eastern Tennessee. A ma-
jor objective of the study was the development
of a methodology to use naturally occurring
radon-222 as a tracer. □
222
Chapter 3:
Human Radiation Experiments
Associated With DOE and Its
Predecessors
introduction 225
Criteria for Listing Experiments 225
Basic Categories of Human Radiation Experiments 226
The Process of Identifying Experiments 227
Summarizing and Listing Experiments 227
Challenges 227
List of Experiments 229
Plutonium Injection Experiments 229
Argonne National Laboratory 229
Brookhaven National Laboratory 231
Hanford Sites 237
Idaho Sites 238
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory 239
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 249
Los Alamos National Laboratory 251
Oak Ridge Sites 259
University of Chicago — Argonne Cancer Research Hospital 268
University of Rochester 279
Other 281
223
224
Chapte r 3. Hu man Radiation Experiments Associated With DOEjmd Its Predecessors
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Experiments Associated With DOE
and Its Predecessors
Introduction
T his section contains a listing, description,
and selected references for documented
human radiation experiments sponsored, sup-
ported, or performed by the Department of En-
ergy or its predecessors. The list represents
work completed by the Office of Human Radia-
tion Experiments through December 1994, and
is a work in progress. Additional experiments
will be added as they are identified, documented,
and confirmed. The experiment list is available
on the Internet and will be updated over time.
This list includes experiments released at Secre-
tary O’Leary’s June 1 994 press conference, as
well as additional studies identified during the six
months that followed. Cross-references are
provided for experiments originally released at
the press conference. Some of the 48 experi-
ments released in June 1994 are not listed here,
as continuing research is necessary. In the inter-
est of assembling the most comprehensive infor-
mation possible, a list of experiments described
in the 1986 congressional report entitled Ameri-
can Nuclear Guinea Pigs: Three Decades of Ra-
diation Experiments on U.S. Citizens is provided
as an appendix. It should be noted that informa-
tion about some studies in American Nuclear
Guinea Pigs has been updated and included in
the current DOE list; further update efforts are
ongoing.
The experiment list is available on the
Internet and will be updated over time.
Basic guidance for identifying experiments is
contained in Executive Order 12891 issued Janu-
ary 15, 1994, and in a January 19, 1 994 White
House memorandum entitled "Retrieval and In-
ventory of Records of Human Radiation Experi-
ments.” These authorities define human radia-
tion experiments as:
Experiments on individuals involving inten-
tional exposure to ionizing radiation. This
category does not include common and
routine clinical practices, such as established
diagnosis and treatment methods, involving
incidental exposures to ionizing radiation;
and
Experiments involving intentional environ-
mental releases of radiation that (A) were
designed to test human health effects of ion-
izing radiation; or (B) were designed to test
the extent of human exposure to ionizing
radiation.
Criteria for Listing Experiments
Several additional criteria were used in com-
piling the list. First, clear evidence that an exper-
iment took place was required. Given the frag-
mented and highly disparate nature of the docu-
mentation, this was often a challenge. Many doc-
uments refer to proposed studies, and in other
cases documents provide inconclusive leads that
require further research. The experiments listed
below have been confirmed through research in
primary and secondary sources.
Figure 54. The first patient to receive boron neutron capture
therapy at Brookhaven National Laboratory (1951). The patient is
under the blanket visible in the mirror ( top center).
Second, the list is limited to experiments con-
ducted or supported by DOE, its predecessor
agencies, or agency contractors. Starting in the
late 1940s, hundreds of hospitals and other
225
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Road m ap to the Story a nd the Records
institutions did work with scores of radionu-
clides and radioactively labeled compounds.
Much of this work involved human radiation ex-
periments. Yet apart from distributing licenses
and isotopes, DOE and its predecessors had no
active role in most of these experiments. Yet
the agency did operate its own cancer hospitals
and other research facilities where human sub-
jects were used in radiation research. Moreover,
the agency contracted with universities and
other institutions for human radiation research.
Such experiments are included.
The third consideration for inclusion on the list
was evidence that an experiment involved expo-
sure of human subjects to radiation. Studies in-
volving only human tissue samples were not in-
cluded. Research involving various drugs, hor-
mones, minerals, or other substances also were
not included unless radiation was involved.
In judging if a procedure was a “common and
routine clinical practice,” the following guidelines
were used. A human radiation experiment in-
cluded any of the following situations where ra-
diation was administered
• without realistic expectation of a benefit to
the subject;
• to test or determine the potential usefulness
of a treatment for other individuals;
• to healthy human subjects;
• to an individual to calibrate radiation detec-
tion instruments.
Several types of procedures did not fall within
the scope of human radiation experiments.
These included procedures where:
• workers occupationally exposed to radiation
were measured for potential internal or ex-
ternal radiation exposure by routine dosime-
try, bioassay, or whole body counting meth-
ods;
• workers were assayed after accidental inter-
nal or external radiation exposures;
• individuals were treated with chelating
agents for removal of accidental or occupa-
tional internal contamination;
• patients were measured for internal radioac-
tivity as part of a legitimate medical, diagnos-
tic or therapeutic process;
• preexisting internal deposition of radionu-
clides were assessed, measured, or studied
in body fluids, excreta, blood, cells, or tissue
samples.
Basic Categories of Human Radiation
Experiments
There are several common and recurring cate-
gories of human radiation experiments. Tracer
studies involved use of radioisotopes as tools to
learn more about the properties of other biolog-
ical compounds, transport pathways, and pro-
cesses in the body. Tracer studies also involved
using isotopes as labeling agents where a drug
was labeled with a radioactive isotope, including
studies conducted to gain knowledge of the
effect of radiation upon humans.
Many of the experimental treatment ther-
apies moved from the experimental stage
to the routine. The point at which they
ceased to be experimental may be difficult
to draw with precision.
All radionuclide metabolism studies in human
subjects were considered as human radiation
experiments. These tests involved the study or
analysis of radioisotope uptake, retention, and
excretion, and were done to learn more about
the specific behavior of elements in the body.
Biological effects of radiation were often deter-
mined during dose response studies.
Radionuclides were used in diagnostic studies to
research human physiological conditions, or to
calibrate radiation detectors or imaging systems.
Finally, experimental treatments for disease, can-
cer perhaps the most prominent, involved the
use of various radiations and radioactive materi-
als. Over time, many of these therapies moved
from the experimental stage to the routine. The
point at which they ceased to be experimental
may be difficult to draw with precision. The re-
viewers have used their best judgment in listing
those treatments that appear to have been ex-
perimental at the time they were administered.
226
Chapter 3. Huma n Radiation Experiments Associated With DOE and Its Predecessors
The Process of Identifying
Experiments
Several steps were involved in locating and re-
viewing documentary evidence related to human
radiation experiments. To start, DOE Office of
Human Radiation Experiments (OHRE) staff
other personnel searched records with informa-
tion of potential value. This selective search
covered records in work spaces, offices, Federal
Records Centers, the U.S. National Archives,
and other archival repositories.
References usually contain fragmentary
information, and considerable research in
primary and secondary sources is often
necessary to verify and describe a specific
experiment.
When documents were found that might contain
information related to human radiation experi-
ments, the documents were copied and
provenanced. Provenancing involves noting the
location of the original document (site, series,
box, and folder). The copies were sent to OHRE
through a document processing facility, the Coor-
dination and Information Center (CIC). The CIC
numbered and indexed the documents, optically
scanned them, and produced copies for distribu-
tion to DOE public reading rooms and other in-
terested parties, including the Advisory Commit-
tee on Human Radiation Experiments. About
1 50,000 documents are included in this system.
The basic document indexes are now available
electronically, including through the Internet.
Work is underway to provide enhanced searching
capabilities and access to document images
through the Internet World Wide Web.
Many varieties of documents reference experi-
ments. These include reports from laboratories
or contract correspondence between research-
ers and agency officials, researcher notes, medi-
cal files, experiment protocols and proposals,
and research bibliographies. References usually
contain fragmentary information, and consider-
able research in primary and secondary sources
is often necessary to verify and describe a spe-
cific experiment. This research involved
gathering all documents related to a particular
experiment and comparing the information with
published journal literature. Much of the infor-
mation on human radiation experiments was
published in the open scientific literature.
Figure 55. Diagnostic test of iodine- 1 3 1 thyroid uptake at
Brookhaven National Laboratory.
Summarizing and Listing Experiments
The experiment summaries provide a concise
description of what occurred based on the infor-
mation that could be found. The focus has been
on learning when and where the experiment
took place; type and dosage of radiation used;
how radiation was administered; why the experi-
ment was conducted; numbers and types of
subjects involved; experimental results; and
funding sources for the experiment. Each experi-
ment summary is followed by a reference sec-
tion which lists citations to information sources.
In addition, case files have been prepared with
information concerning each experiment listed.
Challenges
In preparing this list, and in continuing the
work to find experiments, a variety of challenges
have been encountered. One issue relates to
subject populations. With some exceptions, little
evidence exists about how researchers chose
experimental subjects or what factors went into
such decisions. More details are often available
about the composition of subject populations,
but information in this area is hardly complete.
227
Human Radiation Exper iments: The DOE R oadmap to the Sto ry a nd the Records
Another obstacle is dating: references to experi-
ment dates are often incomplete, as some stud-
ies were conducted over several years. Occa-
sionally, the date given in the experiment sum-
mary is an estimated date based on available in-
formation.
The use of informed consent — or any degree of
consent at all — is also very difficult to document
for many experiments dating before the standard
requirements issued by the National Institutes of
Health in 1974. Contemporary professional liter-
ature typically did not provide much detail about
consent issues, nor do contracts, progress re-
ports, or other information sources.
In addition, it can be difficult to determine the
role of the Federal government in some experi-
ments. Studies occurring at AEC research hospi-
tals or other agency facilities have an obvious con-
nection to the Government. Yet experiments
done in private hospitals often do not. The AEC
provided grants, contracts, and other forms of
direct support for human radiation experiments,
and examples are included in the list. Funding sta-
tus, however, is not always clear. Where available,
funding information is provided.
Finally, this list does not constitute a compre-
hensive compilation of all human radiation re-
search in which DOE and its predecessors were
involved. As indicated above, the work of col-
lecting, assessing, researching, and confirming
continues. □
228
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Experiments — List of Experiments
List of Experiments
Plutonium Injection Experiments ||Argonne National Laboratory
PI-1. Plutonium Injection Studies
During 1945 to 1947, 18 persons were injected
with amounts of plutonium at the Manhattan En-
gineer District Hospital in Oak Ridge, TN (1 pa-
tient), at Strong Memorial Hospital in Rochester,
NY (11 patients), at Billings Hospital of the Uni-
versity of Chicago (3 patients), and at the Univer-
sity Hospital of the University of California in San
Francisco (3 patients). Excreta were obtained
from patients and sent to Los Alamos for pluto-
nium analysis. These data were used to establish
mathematical equations describing plutonium
excretion rates.
This research was funded by the Manhattan En-
gineer District; follow-up studies were supported
by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission and the
Energy Research and Development Administra-
tion. (This experiment was referenced in the
Markey report. See Chapter 2 of this Roadmap
for further information about this experiment.)
References
Durbin, RW. Plutonium in Man: A Twenty-Five
Year Review. Berkeley: Lawrence Radiation Lab-
oratory, UCRL-20850, 1971.
Durbin, P.W. “Plutonium in Man: A New Look at
the Old Data.” Chapter 7.2 in Radiobiology of
Plutonium, edited by B.J. Stover and W.S. Jee.
Salt Lake City: The J.W. Press, 1972. pp.
469-530.
Langham, W.H., H. Bassett, P. S. Harris, and
R.E. Carter. Distribution and Excretion of Pluto-
nium Administered Intravenously to Man. Los
Aiamos: Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory,
LA-1151. Republished in Health Physics. Vol.
38, 1980, pp. 1,031-1,060.
Stannard. J.N. Radioactivity and Health: A His-
tory. Office of Scientific and Technical Informa-
tion. 1988, p. 350-355. □
ANL-1. Radium as an Experimental Therapy
for Treating Mental Disorders at Elgin
State Hospital in Elgin, IL
Patients in a state mental hospital were injected
with radium as an experimental therapy for men-
tal disorders. The experiment appears to have
been conducted at the Elgin State Hospital, in
Elgin, IL, between 1931 and 1933. Documents
indicate that 70 to 450 micrograms of radium-226
(Ra 226 ) were injected. This experiment occurred
prior to the establishment of the Argonne Na-
tional Laboratory and the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission. Argonne National Laboratory later
collected records and attempted to locate the
subjects. Researchers believed that if the pa-
tients could be located and body content mea-
surements made in the 1950s, a valid retention
curve for radium in humans over several de-
cades could be constructed. Argonne National
Laboratory made all later measurements. This
information was useful for radiation protection
guidelines for alpha particle emitters.
The records contain information regarding ra-
dium content of the located subjects, medical
information relating to the subjects’ admission to
the hospital, periodic medical examination re-
sults, and causes of death and death certificates
for deceased subjects. (Previously described in
#31 on the original list of 48 experiments re-
leased by DOE in June 1994)
References
Rowland, R.E., A.F. Stehney, and H.F. Lucas.
“Dose-Response Relationship for Radium-In-
duced Bone Sarcomas.” Health Physics. Vol. 44
(Suppl. 1), 1983, pp.15-31.
Looney, W.B., R.J. Hasterlik, and A.M. Brues. “A
Clinical Investigation of the Chronic Effects of
Radium Salt Administered Therapeutically.”
American Journal of Roentgenology, Radium
Therapy, and Nuclear Medicine. Vol. 73, 1955,
pp. 1,006-1,037.
229
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
Norris, Speckman, and Gustafson. “Studies of
the Metabolism of Radium in Man.” American
Journal of Roentgenology, Radium Therapy, and
Nuclear Medicine. Vol. 73, 1955, p. 785.
Miller, C.E., R.J. Hasterlik, and A.J. Finkel. The
Argonne Radium Studies: Summary of Funda-
mental Data. Chicago: Argonne National Labora-
tory and Argonne Cancer Research Hospital.
ANL-7531 and ACRH-106. □
ANL-2. Effect of Phosphorous-32 on Hemoglo-
bin Metabolism In Polycythemia Rubra
Vera
This study was conducted by the Health Division
of the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University
of Chicago at the University Hospital’s Hematol-
ogy Clinic (six patients) and at the University of
Minnesota (one patient). Five patients were ad-
ministered 15 to 40 microcuries of phosphorus-
32 (P 32 ), and two patients were injected with un-
determined amounts of P 32 in a study of the me-
tabolism of hemoglobin in man. These experi-
ments took place between October 1944 and
June 1945. This study was supported by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission. (Previously de-
scribed in #10 on the original list of 48 experi-
ments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Schwartz, S., E.J. Katz, L.M. Porter, L.O. Jacob-
son, and C.J. Watson. Studies of the Hemolytic
Effect of Radiation. Chicago: Metallurgical Labo-
ratory, CH-3760, July 10, 1946. National Ar-
chives and Records Administration, Record
Group 326, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,
MED/AEC, Metallurgical Laboratory/Argonne
National Laboratory, Classified Correspondence
Files, Box 23X, 2 of 4, Folder 651 . O
ANL-3. Plutonium Ingestion Study
In May 1946, six male employees of the Metallur-
gical Laboratory of the Manhattan Engineer Dis-
trict in Chicago drank a water solution containing
about 0.18 nanocurie of plutonium-239 (Pu 239 ).
The purpose of this study was to investigate the
gastrointestinal absorption and fecal excretion
rate of ingested plutonium. Researchers also
hoped to use the results to improve the interpre-
tation of previously collected data on persons
occupationally exposed to plutonium. Participa-
tion in this experiment was voluntary, and the
amounts of plutonium ingested were sufficiently
low to be barely detectable in urine and feces
with instrumentation available in 1946. At least
two of the subjects were still alive in 1994. (Previ-
ously described in #7 on the original list of 48
experiments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Memorandum. E.R. Russell to J.J. Nickson. June
20, 1946. U.S. Department of Energy, Chicago
Operations, Center for Human Radiobiology, Plu-
tonium Documents. □
ANL-4. Arsenic-76 Biodistribution and
Excretion Studies
This study was conducted by the Argonne Na-
tional Laboratory in 1947 in Chicago. Twelve hos-
pital patients were injected intravenously with
arsenic-76 (As 76 ), administered as potassium
arsenite, to study the uptake, retention, distribu-
tion, and excretion of arsenic. The subjects in-
cluded five males and seven females, all be-
tween the ages of 18 and 67 years and hospital-
ized with leukemia, Hodgkin’s disease, polycythe-
mia rubra vera, melanocarcinoma, and carci-
noma of the parotid. Amounts of As 76 adminis-
tered were 0.5 to 15.4 millicuries. This study
showed that As 76 rapidly distributed throughout
the body, failed to localize in tumors or lymphatic
tissue, and was rapidly excreted in urine and via
the intestinal tract. The study was supported by
the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. (Previously
described in #11 on the original list of 48 experi-
ments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Neal, W.B., L.O. Jacobson, H. Ducoff, and T.
Kelly. Arsenic-76 Preliminary Studies Progress
Report. Chicago: Argonne National Laboratory,
Biology Division, CH-3830, June 1, 1947, pp.1-16.
National Archives and Records Administration,
Record Group 326, U.S. Atomic Energy Commis-
sion, MED/AEC, Metallurgical Laboratory/Argonne
National Laboratory, Classified Correspondence
Files, Box 23, Box 3 of 5, Folder 699. □
230
Chapter 3. Hu man Radiati on Exp erim en ts — Brook haven National Labo ratory
ANL-5. Whole Body Counter Calibration With
Sodium-24
This study was conducted at Argonne National
Laboratory, in the early 1950s, to test and cali-
brate a sodium iodide scintillation counter. Three
individuals ingested a few microcuries of sodium-
24 (Na 24 ) and the sodium iodide scintillation
counter apparatus was used to determine the
gamma-ray activity of Na 24 in the subjects. The
three subjects were Argonne employees.
References
Marinelli, L.D., C.E. Miller, P.F. Gustafson, and
R.E. Rowland. “The Quantitative Determination
of Gamma-Ray Emitting Elements in Living Per-
sons.” American Journal of Roentgenology, Ra-
dium Therapy, and Nuclear Medicine. Vol. 73,
No. 4, April 1955, p. 661-666. □
ANL-6. Uptake of Radioactive Thymidine by
Human Tumor
In 1962, a study was conducted on the uptake of
thymidine labeled with tritium (H 3 ) by human tu-
mors. This study was a cooperative effort be-
tween the Departments of Pathology and Sur-
gery, Northwestern University Medical Hospital,
Chicago, and Argonne National Laboratory. Four
male patients, between the ages of 54 and 69
years old, were included in the study. Three were
in the terminal stages of various forms of cancer.
All subjects were injected with 10 microcuries of
H 3 -labeled thymidine prior to their previously
scheduled surgery. Samples consisting of tumor
and normal abdominal tissues were removed
during surgery. Samples were also collected dur-
ing the autopsies of the terminal subjects. The
results showed similar growth in both cancerous
and noncancerous cells, a finding that was in
agreement with previous animal studies. This
project was partly funded by the U.S. Atomic En-
ergy Commission. (Previously described in #9 on
the original list of 48 experiments released by
DOE in June 1994)
References
Baserga, R., G.C. Henegar, W.E. Kisieleski, and
H. Lisco. “Uptake of Tritiated Thymidine by Hu-
man Tumors In Vivo." Laboratory Investigation.
Vol. 11, No. 5, May 1962, pp. 360-364. □
BNL-1. Effectiveness of Iodine-131 in
Diagnosing and Treating Graves’
Disease and Treat Metastatic
Carcinoma of the Thyroid
In 1950, Brookhaven National Laboratory con-
ducted a study on the use of iodine-131 (I 131 ) to
treat patients with metastatic carcinoma of the
thyroid or with Graves’ disease. Patients for the
study were sent to Brookhaven from Memorial
Hospital in New York City. In the study, a thera-
peutic dose of 4 to 360 millicuries of I 131 was
given to patients; the exact dose depended in
part on the number of metastases and on previ-
ous radiation treatment. Graves’ disease patients
who were unsuitable for surgical therapy were
treated with I 131 in doses of 6 to 20 millicuries.
The patients were monitored for hematological
damage. Metabolic studies were also conducted,
including study of the effects of radiation dose on
renal tubular function. Twelve patients partici-
pated in the study, ranging in age from 15 to 63
years old. Of the 12 patients, 8 were females.
The study was conducted in conjunction with the
Memorial Hospital and was funded by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Memorandum. L.E. Farr to BNL Committee on
Use of Radioactive Isotopes in Human Studies.
January 20, 1950. Brookhaven National Labora-
tory Project H-1. Brookhaven National Labora-
tory, Clinical Research Center, Bldg. 490, Human
Medical Research Protocols.
Memorandum. BNL Committee on Use of Radio-
active Isotopes in Human Studies. January 20,
1950. Brookhaven National Laboratory Project
H-1. Brookhaven National Laboratory, Clinical
Research Center, Bldg. 490, Human Medical
Research Protocols.
Farr, L.E. “Observations of Renal Function in Pa-
tients Receiving Internally Administered Radioac-
tive Isotopes.” from Symposium on Radiobiology,
A.A.A.S., Cleveland, Ohio. December 30, 1950. □
231
Human Radiation Experiments: The DO E Roadmap t o the Story and the R ecords
BNL-2. Boron Neutron Capture Therapy
Brookhaven National Laboratory conducted
boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) on 45
patients from 1951 to 1961. The patients all were
suffering from aggressive and otherwise untreat-
able types of brain tumors, such as glioblastoma
multiforme or malignant glioma; all had received
conventional radiation treatments. The purpose
of BNCT was to attack more precisely the tumors
with radiation, destroying the tumor cells. The
patients were injected with a discrete amount of
boron that was intended to deposit in the tumor.
The tumors were then bombarded with a beam
of neutrons that was directed to the boron and
thus aimed at destroying the tumor. The results
of this therapy were unsuccessful. Patients who
were treated with BNCT generally lived only as
long as those patients, with the same types of
brain tumors, who were treated with conventional
radiation therapies.
This work was funded by the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission. Currently, advances in technology
allowing for greater precision in this technique
have brought about the return of BNCT. As a re-
sult, Brookhaven is currently performing the ther-
apy. (BNCT was referenced in the Markey report.)
References
Slatkin, D. N. “A History of Boron Neutron Cap-
ture Therapy of Brain Tumors.” Brain. Vol. 114,
1991, pp. 1,609-1,629.
Lippincott, S.W., Y. L. Yamamoto, and L.E. Farr,
“Radiation Effects of Neutron-Capture Therapy
on a Malignant Vascular Neoplasm of the Cere-
bellum.” A.M.A. Archives of Pathology. Vol. 69,
January 1960, pp. 44-54.
Farr, L.E., S.W. Lippincott, W. Kahle, W.B. Hay-
maker, and P. Yakovlev. “The Neuropathological
and Topographical Study of Whole Brains Fol-
lowing Neutron Capture Therapy for Glioblas-
toma Multiforme” in Proc. Ill Congress Int’l de
Neuropathologie, Acta Medica Belgica., 1958,
pp. 227-228.
Farr, L.E., J.S. Robertson, and E. Stickley. “Use of
the Nuclear Reactor for Neutron Capture Therapy
of Cancer” from International Conference on the
Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy. June 23, 1955.
Godwin, J. T., L E. Farr, W.H. Sweet, and J.S.
Robertson. “Pathological Study of Eight Patients
with Glioblastoma Multiforme Treated by Boron
Neutron Capture Therapy Using Boron 10.” Can-
cer, Vol. 8. No. 3, May-June 1955, pp. 601-615.
Farr, L.E., W.H. Sweet, L.B. Locksley, and J.S.
Robertson. “Neutron Capture Therapy of Glio-
mas Using Boron.” Transactions of the American
Neurological Association. 1954, pp. 110-113.
Memorandum. L.E. Farr. February 26, 1951.
Brookhaven National Laboratory Project H-15.
Brookhaven National Laboratory, Clinical Re-
search Center, Bldg. 490, Human Medical Re-
search Protocols.
Letter. D.L. Sutherland to L.E. Farr. May 23,
1953. Brookhaven National Laboratory Project
H-15. Brookhaven National Laboratory, Clinical
Research Center, Bldg. 490, Human Medical
Research Protocols. □
BNL-3. Iodine-131 Used to Measure Thyroid
Function in Young Children with
Nephrotic Syndrome
Scientists at Brookhaven National Laboratory
conducted a series of experiments using a group
of young children suffering from nephrotic syn-
drome (kidney disease). In 1951, eight of these
children, aged 2 to 6 years, with renal functions
varying from 14 to 225 percent normal and with
varying degrees of edema or lack thereof, were
studied after administration of iodine-131 (I 131 ).
A uniform ability by the thyroid gland to extract
radioactive iodine from the blood was noted. The
maximum uptake by the gland varied from 30 to
60 percent of the administered doses, which
ranged from 3 to 5 microcuries. The data was
evaluated against comparable data obtained in
normal children. The scientists concluded that
there is no impairment of the thyroid gland in its
ability to take up iodine in young children with the
nephrotic syndrome.
References
Farr, L.E., J.L. Gamble, C.G. Foster, and J.S.
Robertson. ‘Thyroid Function in Young Children
with Nephrotic Syndrome.” Quarterly Progress
Report April 1-June 30, 1951. Upton: Brook-
232
Chapter 3 . H uman Radiation Expe riments — Brookhaven National Laboratory
haven National Laboratory, p. 119. Brookhaven
National Laboratory, BNL Medical Dept., Bldg.
490, Annual Periodic Reports. □
BNL-4. Radioactive Chlorine, Bromine, and
Sodium in Extracellular Fluids
From 1952 to 1953, the total volume of extracel-
lular fluids in 15 humans was studied at Brook-
haven National Laboratory. Five chronically ill
hospital patients were injected with chlorine-38
(Cl 38 ) and sodium-24 (Na 24 ). Ten other patients
were injected with Cl 38 and bromine-82 (Br 82 ).
Total radiation doses were planned so that the
weekly dose limit of 0.3 rad would not be ex-
ceeded. Blood samples were drawn at various
times after injection and the radioactivity mea-
sured. During the course of this experiment,
urine, red blood cells, pleural fluid, gastrointesti-
nal fluid, and spinal fluid were also measured for
Cl 38 and Br 82 . The subjects were considered to be
“normal” for purposes of this study. The U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission funded this study.
(Previously described in #3 on the original list of
48 experiments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Gamble, J.L., J.S. Robertson, C.A. Hannigan,
C.G. Foster, and L.E. Farr. Chloride, Bromide,
Sodium, and Sucrose Spaces in Humans. Upton:
Brookhaven National Laboratory, BNL-1326,
February 3, 1953. U.S. Department of Energy
Archives, Record Group 326, U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission, Division of Biology and Medicine,
Box 3358, Folder 14. □
BNL-5. Measurement of the Turnover Rate of
Sodium in Nephrotic Children Using
Sodium-24
Brookhaven National Laboratory conducted
an experiment in 1954 on nephrotic children to
study the rates of exchange of sodium in edema
fluid, in ascitic fluid, and in the blood plasma.
Sodium-24 (Na 24 ) as sodium chloride was in-
jected intravenously and the plasma Na 24 disap-
pearance curve was analyzed and compared to
the Na 24 appearance curves in the two fluids. It
was found that in both fluids the ratio of (a) the
rate of change of the Na 24 concentration to (b)
the difference between the Na 24 concentration in
the plasma and that in the fluids increased with
time during the first few hours after injection.
References
Robertson, J.S. “The Turnover Rate of Sodium in
Edema Fluid and Ascites.” in Federation Pro-
ceedings of the American Society for Experimen-
tal Pathology. Vol. 13, March 1954, p. 442.
Robertson, J.S. “The Turnover Rate of Sodium in
Edema Fluid and Ascites.” Quarterly Progress
Report April 1-June 30, 1954. Upton, NY: Brook-
haven National Laboratory, p. 50. Brookhaven
National Laboratory, BNL Medical Dept., Bldg.
490, Annual Periodic Reports. □
BNL-6. Degradation Rate of Iodine-1 31-
Labeled Normal Albumin Using the
Whole Body Gamma Spectrometer
In 1954, Brookhaven National Laboratory con-
ducted metabolic studies in humans with I 131 -
tagged serum albumin. In prior studies, plasma
protein fractions labeled with I 131 had been ad-
ministered to both normal subjects and to pa-
tients. A gamma spectrometer was constructed
to determine transfer rates of locally injected I 131
serum albumin and other substances tagged with
gamma-emitting isotopes.
In this study, the biological half-life of l 131 -labeled
human albumin was determined by two methods.
The first method was the calculation from serum
and urine samples following injection of 59
microcuries of I 131 . The second method used the
whole body gamma spectrometer to measure the
amount of label present in the body at stated inter-
vals following injection of 6.6 microcuries of I 131 .
Plasma-specific activity and urinary excretion were
followed up to 60 days following injection. The rate
of disappearance of the labeled albumin was mea-
sured in two patients. The first was a 49-year-old
woman with chronic cystic mastitis: the second
was a 40-year-old woman who had previously had
a mastectomy. This research was supported by
the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Lippincott, S.W., S.H. Cohn, J.S. Robertson, and
L.E Farr, “In Vivo Measurement by the Whole
233
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
Body Gamma Spectrometer of the Degradation
Rate of I 131 Labeled Normal Albumin.” Laboratory
Investigation. Vol. 10, Pt. 1, May-June 1961, pp.
481-491.
Lewallen, C.G. “Studies in Humans with I 131 Se-
rum Albumin.” Quarterly Progress Report July
1 -September 30, 1954. Upton, NY: Brookhaven
National Laboratory, p. 51. Brookhaven National
Laboratory, BNL Medical Dept., Bldg. 490, An-
nual Periodic Reports.
Cohn, S.H. “Whole body Counting.” Quarterly
Progress Report April 1-June 30, 1959. Upton,
NY: Brookhaven National Laboratory, pp. 41-42.
Brookhaven National Laboratory, BNL Medical
Dept., Bldg. 490, Annual Periodic Reports. □
BNL-7. Studies on the Metabolism of Plasma
Proteins In the Nephrotic Syndrome
This study was conducted at Brookhaven National
Laboratory from 1955 to 1956. The subjects were
six children in various phases of the nephrotic syn-
drome, including one child who had recovered
from the illness, and nine normal subjects, consist-
ing of 8 men and one woman, all between the
ages of 21 and 29. These subjects were given
intravenous tracer doses of radioiodinated human
plasma albumin and radioiodinated human
gammaglobulin. Three of the children were then
given intravenous injections of radioiodinated hu-
man iron-binding globulin. The amount of activity
administered was not to exceed 1 .5 microcuries
per kilogram of body weight.
The disappearance of specific radioiodinated
plasma protein from circulation and its cumula-
tive appearance in the urine were studied; the
urinary excretion of nonprotein radioiodine was
also investigated. This study was supported by
grants from the National Institutes of Health, the
United States Public Health Service, the Muscu-
lar Dystrophy Association of America, the Playtex
Park Research Institute, and the U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission.
References
Gitlin, D., D.G. Cornwell, D. Nakasato, J.L.
Oncley, W.L. Hughes, and C.A. Janeway. “Stud-
ies on the Metabolism of Plasma Proteins in the
Nephrotic Syndrome: The Lipoproteins.” Journal
of Clinical Investigation. Vol. 37, No. 2, February
1958, pp. 172-184.
Gitlin, D., C.A. Janeway, and L.E. Farr. “Studies
on the Metabolism of Plasma Proteins in the Ne-
phrotic Syndrome: Albumin, Gamma-Globulin and
Iron-Binding Globulin.” Journal of Clinical Investi-
gation. Vol. 35, January-June 1956, pp. 44-56.
Gitlin, D., C.A. Janeway, and L.E. Farr. “Studies
on the Metabolism of Plasma Proteins in the Ne-
phrotic Syndrome. I. Albumin, Gammaglobulin,
and Iron-Binding Globulin.” Quarterly Progress
Report January 1-March 31, 1956. Upton, NY:
Brookhaven National Laboratory, p. 52.
Brookhaven National Laboratory, BNL Medical
Dept., Bldg. 490, Annual Periodic Reports. □
BNL-8. Metabolism Studies with Acetate
Labeled with Carbon-1 4
In 1957, at Brookhaven National Laboratory,
studies were carried out to investigate carbon
acetate metabolism. Forty to 100 microcuries of
1-C 14 -labeled acetate or 2-C 14 -labeled acetate
were intravenously injected into human subjects.
Diabetics, who had fasted and were denied insu-
lin on the day of the experiment, served as sub-
jects. Both stable and unstable diabetics were
used in this experiment, including a 12-year-old
girl who had fasted for 15 hours and had re-
ceived no insulin on the day of the experiment.
After medical staff administered the intravenous
trace dose of C 14 -labeled acetate, metabolism
products as triglycerides, cholesterol, ketone
bodies, glucose, pyruvic and alpha-ketoglutaric
acids, and carbon dioxide were isolated from the
blood, urine, and breath, and analyzed by C 14
content. The study was supported by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Hennes, A.R. and W.W. Shreeve. “Hormonal
Effects on C 14 Acetate Metabolism in the Hu-
man.” in Proceedings of the Society for Experi-
mental Biology and Medicine. Vol. 100, February
1959, pp. 246-250.
Shreeve, W.W. and A.R. Hennes. “Effect of Adre-
nal Steroid Hormones on the Metabolic Fate of
C 14 -Labeled Acetate in Human Subjects.” Quar-
234
- 1
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Experiments — Brookhaven National Laboratory
terly Progress Report July 1 -September 30, 1957.
Upton, NY: Brookhaven National Laboratory, p.
36. Brookhaven National Laboratory, BNL Medical
Dept., Bldg. 490, Annual Periodic Reports.
Shreeve, W.W. and A.R. Hennes. “Effect of Adre-
nal Steroid Hormones on the Metabolism of 2-C 14 -
Pyruvate in Diabetic Humans.” Quarterly Progress
Report July 1 -September 30, 1957. Upton:
Brookhaven National Laboratory, pp. 36-37.
Brookhaven National Laboratory, BNL Medical
Dept., Bldg. 490, Annual Periodic Reports. □
BNL-9. Metabolic Studies with Manganese-54
In 1957, Brookhaven National Laboratory con-
ducted human metabolic studies with the isotope
manganese-54 (Mn 54 ). This study was the first to
use Mn 54 in human subjects. Manganese had
been assumed to participate indirectly in hemato-
poiesis (blood formation). Two or more patients
were injected with Mn 54 and followed to deter-
mine body surface, blood radioactivity, and ex-
cretion rates. Blood taken from one of the pa-
tients 66 days after injection contained almost the
entire radioactivity in the red cell fraction. This
research was supported by the U.S. Atomic En-
ergy Commission.
References
Borg, D.C. and G.C. Cotzias. “Incorporation of
Manganese into Erythrocytes as Evidence for a
Manganese Porphyrin in Man.” Nature. Vol. 182,
December 13, 1958, pp. 1,677-1,678.
Borg, D.C., G.C. Cotzias, and M. Birnbaum. “Ba-
sic Physiology of Manganese.” Quarterly Prog-
ress Report July 1 -September 30, 1957. Upton,
NY: Brookhaven National Laboratory, p. 41.
Brookhaven National Laboratory, BNL Medical
Dept., Bldg. 490, Annual Periodic Reports. □
BNL-10. Magnesium Metabolism Studies in
Humans with Magnesium-28
In 1959, Brookhaven National Laboratory used
magnesium-28 (Mg 28 ) to study the In vivo distri-
bution and retention function of magnesium in
man. Ten adults — 3 males and 7 females — were
studied at the metabolic wards of the Brook-
haven Medical Research Center Hospital. All but
one of the male subjects suffered from hyperten-
sion. Nine of the subjects received intravenous
injections of the isotope; two were studied after
oral administration of Mg 28 . The intravenous dos-
ages, which ranged from 20 to 104 microcuries,
were slowly administered to prevent toxic symp-
toms. Excretion rates were analyzed by measur-
ing Mg 28 in urine and stool specimens. This study
was conducted with support from the U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission.
References
Silver, L.J. Robertson and L.K. Dahl. “Magne-
sium Turnover in the Human Studied with Mg 28 .”
Journal of Clinical Investigation. Vol. 39, Febru-
ary 1 960, pp. 420-425. □
BNL-11. Whole Body Counting Technique
Used to Study Turnover of Globulins
Labeled with Iodine-131
In 1959, Brookhaven National Laboratory con-
ducted studies on the turnover of beta- and
gamma-globulins labeled with iodine-131 (I 131 ).
The investigators used both the conventional
method of blood and urine sampling and a new
technique that used the whole body gamma
spectrometer. The new device allowed scientists
to measure the retention of labeled globulins over
long periods of time following administration of
low levels of isotopes, particularly internally de-
posited gamma emitters.
One patient participated in these studies; he was
placed in the whole body counter 34 times. The
subject was a multiple myeloma patient who was
injected with the l 131 -labeled globulins on three
occasions. The amount of iodine activity in the
labeled globulins ranged from 17 to 50.16
microcuries. The study was supported by the
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Lippincott, S.W., S.H. Cohn, H. Hamel, S. Fine,
and S. Korman. “Determination of Radioactively
Labeled Globulin Turnover by the Direct Whole
body Counting Technique.” Journal of Clinical
Investigation. Vol. 40, January-June 1961, pp.
697-702.
235
Hum an Radiation E xperim en ts: The DOE Ro admap to th e Story a nd th e Rec ords
Lippincott, S.W., W.L. Hughes, and S. Korman.
“Turnover of Labeled Globulins as Correlated
with Serum Electrophoretic Pattern in Multiple
Myeloma.” Bulletin of the Medical Department
July 1, 1959. Upton, NY: Brookhaven National
Laboratory, p. 16. Brookhaven National Labora-
tory, BNL Medical Dept., Bldg. 490, Annual Peri-
odic Reports. □
BNL-12. A Study of Metabolic Pathways of
Carbohydrate Formation Using
Carbon-14
Studies were carried out at Brookhaven National
Laboratory to study the metabolic pathways by
which human subjects in various metabolic
states form glucose. In this study, the subjects
were three men with bronchogenic carcinoma,
three male diabetics, and one 13-year-old female
diabetic.
On the day of the experiment, the subjects were
denied food and insulin and then were injected
with C 14 -acetate. Carcinoma patients received
200 microcuries; diabetic patients received from
40 to 100 microcuries as a single 1- to 2-minute
injection. Breath samples were collected and
analyzed. Some of these patients participated in
multiple studies.
In a related study, two moderately diabetic sub-
jects fasted and were given by mouth 0.5-1 .0
grams of C 14 -labeled ethanol per kilogram of body
weight. The blood and urinary glucose were iso-
lated. The results indicated that in one patient
about 1 percent as much C 14 was present in total
body glucose as had been excreted as C0 2 after
2Vz hours. In the other patient about 2 percent as
much was present. Both patients had excreted
about 25 percent of the total administered C 14 by
the end of 24 hours. This research was partly sup-
ported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Shreeve, W.W., A.R. Hennes, and R. Schwartz.
“Production of C 14 0 2 from 1- and 2-C 14 -Acetate by
Human Subjects in Various Metabolic States.”
Metabolism. Vol. 8, September 1959, pp.
741-756.
Shreeve, W.W. and M. Conovitz. “A Study of
Metabolic Pathways of Carbohydrate Formation
in Diabetes by Means of Carbon-14.” Quarterly
Progress Report July 1 -September 30, 1955.
Upton, NY: Brookhaven National Laboratory, p.
45. Brookhaven National Laboratory, BNL Medi-
cal Dept., Bldg. 490, Annual Periodic Reports. □
BNL-13. Analysis of Blood Glucose Following
Intravenous Injection of Carbon-14
In 1959, at Brookhaven National Laboratory, dia-
betic and nondiabetic patients were given intra-
venous injections of 40 to 150 microcuries of
lactate or pyruvate labeled with carbon-14 (C 14 ).
The injections were followed by serial analysis of
blood glucose for C 14 content. Subsequently,
glycogen was injected in an attempt to estimate
relative glycogen labeling. Seven diabetic and
three nondiabetic subjects were used in this
study. The effects of insulin, tolbutamide, and
glucose load were also studied in the same pa-
tients. This study was funded by the U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission.
References
De Meutter, R.C. and W.W. Shreeve. “Conver-
sion of DL-Lactate-2-C 14 or -3-C 14 or Pyruvate-2-
C 14 to Blood Glucose in Humans: Effects of Dia-
betes, Insulin, Tolbutamide, and Glucose Load.”
Journal of Clinical Investigation. Vol. 42, No. 4,
1963, pp. 525-533.
Schwartz, R., R.C. DeMuetter, and W.W.
Shreeve. “Dynamics of Bicarbonate Movement
and Turnover in Humans.” Quarterly Progress
Report April 1-June 30, 1959. Upton, NY:
Brookhaven National Laboratory, p. 52. Brook-
haven National Laboratory, BNL Medical Dept.,
Bldg. 490, Annual Periodic Reports. □
BNL-14. The Metabolism and Fate of Tritiated
Thymidine in Man
This study was conducted in 1959, at Brook-
haven National Laboratory as part of an investi-
gation of H 3 -thymidine as a label for DNA of pro-
liferating cells in vivo and in vitro systems. In this
study, H 3 -thymidine metabolism was studied in
selected patients following intravenous injection.
All patients were beyond reproductive age and
were judged to have short life expectancies. In
two control patients with normal hematopoiesis
236
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Experiments — Hanford Sites
(blood-formation), H 3 -thymidine rapidly cleared
the plasma and distributed in a volume as large
as total body water within a few minutes after
injection. Two of the subjects selected for this
initial investigation were patients with brain tu-
mors, judged to have short life expectancies and
to be in hemopoietic equilibrium at the time of
study. This research was supported by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Rubini J.R., E.P Cronkite, V.P. Bond, and T.M.
Fliedner. ‘The Metabolism and Fate of Tritiated
Thymidine in Man.” Journal of Clinical Investiga-
tion. Vol. 39, June 1960, pp. 909-918.
Cronkite, E.P., J.R. Rubini, S.A. Killmann, V.P.
Bond, J. Bateman, L. Feinendegen, E. Adamik, L.
Wood, M. Canner, M. Pavelec, and C. Sipe. “Me-
tabolism of H 3 -Thymidine and H 3 -Labeled DNA.”
Quarterly Progress Report April 1-June 30, 1959.
Upton, NY: Brookhaven National Laboratory, pp.
55-56. Brookhaven National Laboratory, BNL Me-
dical Dept., Bldg. 490, Annual Periodic Reports. □
BNL-15. Study of Carbon-1 4- La be led
Ascorbic Acid Metabolism
A research collaboration in the early 1970s
between Brookhaven National Laboratory and
Verwoerd Hospital in Pretoria, South Africa, re-
sulted in a study of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) la-
beled with carbon-14 (C 14 ) metabolism in Bantu
tribesmen with a disease called hemosiderosis.
This disease is similar to scurvy and is common
among the South African Bantu. It involves exces-
sive iron accumulation and failure to utilize ascor-
bic acid. This research was conducted to deter-
mine the metabolism of ascorbic acid. Four adult
Bantu men who had been diagnosed with hemo-
siderosis and scurvy participated in this study.
Ascorbic acid labeled with carbon-14 was given
orally, after which blood samples, urine samples,
and respiratory C0 2 samples were collected and
analyzed. The results indicated that most of the
C 14 was excreted primarily by respiration and sec-
ondarily in the urine. This work was jointly sup-
ported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission
and the South African Atomic Energy Board.
References
Hankes, L.V., C.R. Jansen, and M. Schmaeler.
“Ascorbic Acid Catabolism in Bantu with Hemo-
siderosis (Scurvy).” Biochemical Medicine. Vol. 9,
1974, pp. 244-255. □
Hanford Sites
HS-1. Ingestion of Iodine-131 in Milk by
Hanford Employees
In 1963, milk from dairy cows fed iodine-131 (I 131 )
was consumed by eight General Electric/Hanford
workers either as a single dose or as several
daily doses. During the study, the amount of io-
dine in the cows' diet was increased from 5 milli-
grams per day to 2 grams per day. The resulting
uptake by the human thyroid was determined in
Hanford's whole body counter facility. Partici-
pants were Hanford scientists who volunteered to
drink the milk and be counted over a period of
about one month. This work was supported by
the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. (Previously
described in #41 on the original list of 48 experi-
ments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Watson, E.C., I.C. Nelson, D.H. Wood, R.O.
McClellan, and L.K. Bustad. “Effect of Varying
Stable Iodine in Diets of Cows Fed I 131 on Uptake
of I 131 in Man Drinking the Milk — An Abstract.” in
Biology of Radioiodine: Proceedings of the
Hanford Symposium on the Biology of Radioio-
dine, Richland, Washington, July 17-19, 1964.
Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1964, p. 339.
Handwritten Monthly Report. J.K. Soldat to R.F.
Foster. July 1963. Washington State University
Tri-Cities Campus, PNL, DOE Richland Public
Reading Room, I 131 , Open Shelving,
PNL-9369-DEL. □
HS-2. Intentional Release of Iodine-131 at
Hanford in 1963
In July 1963, Hanford Laboratory conducted a
study that involved the release of 120 micro-
curies of iodine-131 (I 131 ) into the environment.
These releases were designed to characterize
237
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
the dispersion of radiation to the environment.
The purpose of the experiment was to enable
scientists to study how the radioactive iodine
spread in turn through the air, soil, and vegeta-
tion, and how it affected animals. Two volunteer
human subjects (Hanford employees), were sta-
tioned in the expected path of the radiation cloud
These subjects intentionally inhaled I 131 from the
release and were subsequently measured for
thyroidal uptake of I 131 . These experiments were
performed under contract with the U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission.
References
Gamertsfelder, C.C. “Plans and Hazard Analysis
for the First Hanford I 131 Field Release Test.”
Richland, WA: Hanford Atomic Products Opera-
tion, Physics and Instruments Laboratory,
HW-78312, July 19, 1963. Washington State Uni-
versity Tri-Cities Campus, PNL, DOE Richland
Public Reading Room, I 131 , Open Shelving.
Handwritten Monthly Report. J.K. Soldat to R.F.
Foster. July 1963. Washington State University
Tri-Cities Campus, PNL, DOE Richland Public
Reading Room, I 131 , Open Shelving,
PNL-9369-DEL.
Monthly Report. Senior Engineer to R.F. Foster.
August 23, 1963. Washington State University
Tri-Cities Campus, PNL, DOE Richland Public
Reading Room, I 131 , Open Shelving,
PNL-9370. □
Idaho Sites
IS-1 . Administration of Radioactive Material
to Volunteers to Test or Calibrate
Analytical Equipment
From 1965 to 1972, as many as 18 employees
at the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission’s Health
Services Laboratory at the National Reactor
Testing Station in Idaho voluntarily swallowed
radioactive material, or inhaled radioactive noble
gases, prior to being placed in whole body coun-
ters. The following radionuclides were used in the
experiments: Ar 41 , K 42 , Mn 54 , Co 60 , Zn 65 , Kr 85 " 1 ,
Zr 95 /Nb 95 , Ru 106 , Ag 110m , I 131 , Cs 132 , Xe' 33 , Cs 137 ,
and Ce 144 . In most of the ingestion cases, the
radioactive material was encapsulated in plastic
so that no radioactive material was absorbed into
body tissues. These measurements were per-
formed to develop and evaluate new whole body-
counting equipment and to calibrate that equip-
ment. The whole body-counting equipment was
used to measure the amount of radioactivity in-
side the body of occupational radiation workers
exposed to radioactive material. Policies for con-
ducting these experiments limited radiation
doses to volunteers to levels below the occupa-
tional radiation-protection guidelines in effect at
the time. (This experiment was referenced in the
Markey report.)
References
Anderson, J.l. and D.G. Olson. “A Rotational
Technique for Assessing Quantity and Distribu-
tion of Body Radioactivity.” Health Physics. Vol.
13, 1967, p. 719.
Olson, D.G. “A Direct Calibration Using Gamma
Spectrometry for Measuring Radioactivity in Hu-
mans.” Health Physics. Vol. 14, 1968, p. 438.
Howard, L.E., J.H. Spikard, and M. Wilhelmsen.
“A Human Radioactivity Counter and Medical
Van.” Health Physics. Vol. 21, 1971, p. 417.
Anderson, J.l. and D.G. Olson. “Computerized
Helical Scanning to Determine the Location of
Specific Nuclides in the Human Body.” Health
Physics. Vol. 23, 1 972, p. 325.
Sill, C.W. Some Guidelines for Studies Involving
Internal Administration of Radioactive Materials
to Human Volunteers. Idaho Falls: Idaho Opera-
tions Office, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,
IDO-1 2058, October 1966. □
IS-2. Controlled Environmental
Radioiodine Tests (CERT)
Atomic Energy Commission scientists and other
professionals at the National Reactor Testing Sta-
tion in Idaho conducted the Controlled Environ-
mental Radioiodine Tests (CERT) to study the
transport of radioiodine through the air-vegetation-
cow-milk-human food chain from 1963 through
1968. Five of the 24 CERT tests involved expo-
sure of volunteers to iodine-131 to study the trans-
port of radioiodine to and through the human body.
238
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Experiments — Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
In the first test — CERT No. 1 — seven individuals
consumed milk from a cow that had grazed in a
pasture where the radioiodine was deposited,
and their uptake of radioiodine was determined
by thyroid gland monitoring. Average thyroid
dose was 0.39 rad; the maximum thyroid dose
was 0.63 rad. In CERT Nos. 2, 7, and 10, three
individuals, seven individuals, and one individual,
respectively, were reportedly exposed during ra-
dioiodine releases over the pasture to determine
their uptake by inhalation. The number of individ-
uals involved in a similar inhalation experiment
during CERT No. 11 was not listed in published
reports; however, whole body-counting logs indi-
cate that 10 individuals were apparently involved.
Thyroid doses from inhalation during CERT No. 2
were no greater than 0.015 rad, and the reported
thyroid activity observed during CERT No. 7 was
about the same as that in CERT No. 2. Thyroid
doses to volunteers were not reported for CERT
Nos. 10 and 11. The volunteers were employees
of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. (This
experiment was referenced in the Markey report.)
References
Hawley, C.A., C.W. Sill, G.L. Voelz, and N.F.
Islitzer. Controlled Environmental Radioiodine
Tests at the National Reactor Testing Station.
Idaho Falls: Idaho Operations Office, U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission, IDO-1 2035, June 1964.
Hawley, Jr., C.A., Editor. Controlled Environmen-
tal Radioiodine Tests at the National Reactor
Testing Station 1965 Progress Report. Idaho
Falls: Idaho Operations Office, U.S. Atomic En-
ergy Commission, IDO-1 2047, February 1966.
Bunch, D.F., Editor. Controlled Environmental
Radioiodine Tests Progress Report Number Two.
Idaho Falls: Idaho Operations Office, U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission, IDO-1 2053, August 1966.
Bunch, D.F., Editor. Controlled Environmental
Radioiodine Tests, Progress Report Number
Three. Idaho Falls: Idaho Operations Office, U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission, IDO-1 2063, Janu-
ary 1968. O
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
LBL-1 . Treatment of Leukemia With
Phosphorous-32
Between 1936 and 1947, patients with various
types of leukemia were treated with
phosphorous-32 (P 32 ) with and without supple-
mental x-ray treatments. Approximately 129 pa-
tients with chronic myelogenous leukemia and
100 patients with chronic lymphatic leukemia
were treated at the Radiation Laboratory and the
Donner Laboratory of the University of California
in Berkeley and San Francisco. Previously it had
been demonstrated that radiophosphorous con-
centrated in the bone marrow and soft tissue of
leukemic mice. Therefore, it was expected that
P 32 would provide a highly localized radiation
source for human leukemic patients.
Both studies employed similar average doses of
1 to 2 microcuries per week for 4 to 8 weeks,
although higher doses were also included. Ap-
proximately half of the patients studied previously
received x-ray treatment. It was found that P 32
treatment increased the quality of life for chronic
myelogenous leukemic patients, but did not pro-
long the duration of life. In the case of chronic
lymphatic leukemia patients, the quality of life
was improved and the duration was prolonged.
Based on these findings, an unspecified number
of chronic lymphatic patients were treated with
P 32 through 1960. This research was partly sup-
ported by grants from the International Cancer
Research Foundation.
References
Lawrence, J.H., R. L. Dobson, B.V.A. Low-Beer,
and B.R. Brown. “Chronic Myelogenous Leuke-
mia.” Journal of the American Medical Associa-
tion. Vol. 136, 1948, pp. 672-677.
Lawrence, J.H., B.V.A. Low-Beer, and J.W.J.
Carpender. “Chronic Lymphatic Leukemia.” Jour-
nal of the American Medical Association. Vol.
140, 1949, pp. 585-588. □
239
Hu man Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadm ap to the S tor y and the Reco rds
LBL-2. Metabolic Studies of Bone Tumors
Using Strontium-89
An experiment was conducted in 1942 at the
Radiation Laboratory of the University of Califor-
nia, Berkeley, on the uptake of radiostrontium by
bone tumors. Strontium-89 (Sr 89 ) was adminis-
tered to six subjects prior to biopsy or amputa-
tion. Tissue samples were collected and ana-
lyzed to determine the Sr 89 uptake. The subjects
consisted of five males and one female, ranging
in age from 9 to 54 years. Five of the subjects
received intravenous injection solutions which
ranged from 326 to 1 ,462 microcuries. The sixth
subject was given 1,183 microcuries of Sr 89
orally. This experiment showed that Sr 89 had
therapeutic value in treating certain types of bone
cancers. Some of these cancer patients also
received therapeutic amounts of Sr 89 (a few
millicuries), but details are not available. This
research was supported by the Rockefeller Foun-
dation and the Columbia Fund for Medical Phys-
ics.
References
Treadwell, A. de G., B.V.A. Low-Beer, H. L.
Friedell, and J.H. Lawrence. “Metabolic Studies
on Neoplasm of Bone with the Aid of Radioactive
Strontium.” American Journal of the Medical Sci-
ences. Vol. 204, 1942, pp. 521-523. □
UBL-3. Inhalation Studies Using Carbon
From 1944 to 1945, the Aero Medical Labora-
tory, University of California, Berkeley and the
Department of Physiology, Columbia University,
conducted a collaborative study using carbon.
The radioactive carbon was used as a tracer to
determine whether in the human body carbon
monoxide (CO) oxidizes to carbon dioxide (C0 2 ).
The subjects consisted of four men, including
three of the researchers conducting the experi-
ment. The four men inhaled a relatively large
dose of CO labeled with carbon, subsequent to
which they breathed oxygen. During this time,
their expired C0 2 was collected and measured
for radioactivity, the presence of which would
prove that the human body could convert CO to
C0 2 . Geiger counters were placed over various
parts of the body (thigh, chest, spleen, and liver)
to measure the uptake and elimination of C0 2 .
The CO oxidized to C0 2 by the body amounted to
less than 0.1 percent of the CO lost from the
blood. This work was supported by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Tobias C.A., J.H. Lawrence, F.J.W. Roughton,
W.S. Root, and M.l. Gregersen. “The Elimination
of Carbon Monoxide from the Human Body with
Reference to the Possible Conversion of CO to
C0 2 .” American Journal of Physiology. Vol. 145,
No. 2, December 1945, pp. 253-263.
Lawrence, J.H. “Positron Emitting Isotopes: In-
vestigative and Diagnostic Studies,” pp.
247-262. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, John
Hundale Lawrence Files, Accession
434-92-0066, File Code 19-14-6, Carton 15,
Folder Positron Emitting Isotopes. O
LBL-4. inhalation of Zirconium-89 on Smoke
Particles
Inhalation studies were conducted at Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory in about 1945 using an ac-
tive smoke containing zirconium-89 (Zr 89 ). One
member of the research team was the only hu-
man subject. The purpose of this experiment was
to determine the degree of retention by the lungs
of very finely divided active smoke suspended in
air. The results showed that almost 100 percent
of the inhaied activity (about 0.5 microcurie of
Zr 89 ) was retained within the lungs and upper
respiratory tract. This work was supported by the
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. (Previously
described in #30 on the original list of 48 experi-
ments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Scott, K.G., D. Axelrod, J. Crowley, and J.G. Ham-
ilton. “Deposition and Fate of Plutonium, Uranium
and Their Fission Products Inhaled as Aerosols by
Rats and Man.” Archives of Pathology. Vol. 48,
No. 1, July-December 1949, pp. 31-54. □
LBL-5. Radioactive Phosphorous as a
Possible Diagnostic Procedure for
Breast Tumors
In 1946, the University of California Hospital, San
Francisco, employed phosphorous-32 (P 32 ) in
240
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Experiments — Lawrence Berkel ey Laboratory
tracer studies to develop a new diagnostic proce-
dure for distinguishing between malignant and
benign breast tumors. Twenty-five female pa-
tients with breast tumors were included in the
study. All patients had been scheduled for sur-
gery. Each patient was intravenously adminis-
tered 300 to 500 microcuries of P 32 as sodium
phosphate 24 or 48 hours prior to surgery. Sur-
face measurements were made over the tumor
and over a control area on the opposite normal
breast, 2, 4, 6, and 20 hours after the injection of
P 32 . An increase in counts was found over the
surface of malignant tumors, whereas counts
were not elevated over benign tumors. The ma-
lignancy of the tumor was determined by surgery.
Results indicated that P 32 might be used as a
diagnostic procedure for breast cancer, except
for very slow-growing or deep-seated cancers.
References
Low-Beer, B.V.A., H.G. Bell, H.J. McCorkle, R.S.
Stone, H.L. Steinbach, and W.B. Hill. “Measure-
ment of Radioactive Phosphorus in Breast Tu-
mors in Situ: a Possible Diagnostic Procedure.”
Radiology. Vol. 47, pp. 429-496. □
LBL-6. Comparison of the Uptake of
■ Zirconium-95 in Tumor and Normal
Tissue
In 1946, at the University of California San Fran-
cisco and the Crocker Radiation Laboratory, Uni-
versity of California, Berkeley research was car-
ried out to study the deposition of zirconium in a
human subject. The subject, a 55-year-old fe-
male patient with a reticulo endothelial tumor that
had arisen in the spleen and then metastasized
to the liver and left leg, was given a test dose of
Zr 95 . This was administered intravenously as an
isotonic saline solution 24 hours prior to a
midthigh amputation of the left leg. This subject
was administered 1.76 millicuries of Zr 95 in saline
by intravenous injection 24 hours prior to a
scheduled midthigh amputation of the left leg.
Samples of the tumor, as well as normal tissue,
were later obtained from the limb for Zr 95 assay.
The tumor was found to have greater uptake of
Zr 95 than the normal tissues of the body. External
counting 2 hours after the Zr 95 injection showed
that the liver contained about 90 percent of the
total measurable deposition and the tumor had
about 10 percent of the total deposition. This
study was supported by the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission.
References
Low-Beer B.V.A., K.G. Scott, J.G. Hamilton, and
R.S. Stone. “Comparative Deposition of Zr 95 in a
Reticulo Endothelial Tumor to Normal Tissues in
a Human Patient.” Berkeley: University of Califor-
nia Radiation Laboratory, UCRL-68. □
L6L-7, Autoradiographic Studies of the
Distribution of Radiolabeled Lewisite
and Mustard Gas on Skin
This experiment was conducted in 1947 at the
Crocker Radiation Laboratory, University of Cali-
fornia, Berkeley and the University of California
Medical School in San Francisco. The experiment
sought to determine the distribution of mustard
and lewisite in skin and eye tissues. These two
chemical-warfare gases were labeled with radioac-
tive sulfur (S 35 ) and radioactive arsenic (As 74 ).
Small areas of the skin of four normal subjects
were exposed to the two labeled gases. Two ex-
periments were performed with mustard gas la-
beled with S 35 . The first involved a 10-minute ex-
posure to 475 micrograms of labeled chemical; the
second, a 15-minute exposure to 475 micrograms.
In both cases, the exposed area was 0.43 square
centimeter and biopsy specimens of these areas
were taken 24 hours after exposure.
Two experiments were also performed on lewis-
ite labeled with 10 micrograms of As 74 ; the first
involved a 10-minute exposure to 475 micro-
grams of lewisite; the second, al 5-minute expo-
sure to 475 micrograms. The new technique of
autoradiography was used to determine the skin
layer at which the fixation took place on the
biopsied human skin samples. Lewisite was
found to fix primarily in the epidermis and mus-
tard gas fixed in both the epidermis and dermis.
References
Axelrod, D.J. and J.G. Hamilton. “Radio-Autograph
Studies of the Distribution of Lewisite and Mustard
Gas in Skin and Eye Tissues.” American Journal
of Pathology. Vol. XXIII, 1947, pp. 389-411. □
241
Human Radiation Experiments: Th e DOE Roadmap to th e Story and the Records
LBL-8. Injection of Americium-241
On June 10, 1947, at the University of California
San Francisco, a 16-year-old Chinese male pa-
tient of Chinese Hospital in San Francisco, identi-
fied as Cal-A, with osteogenic sarcoma of the left
femur, and general metastases, received an in-
tramuscular injection of americium-241 (Am 241 ).
Estimated dose is around 0.2 microcurie. The
same day, two rats were given intramuscular
injections of 1 cc of solution made from the same
specifications as the Cal-A injection. Readings of
the human subject’s urine and feces were col-
lected through at least June 24, 1947. On June
12, 1947, the subject was amputated at the left
midthigh. Samples of the amputation tissue were
dissected the next day. The samples were read
for isotope uptake, as the tumor was expected to
have higher uptake than normal body tissues.
Studies were made of the tumor; the bone tissue
in which the tumor was found; the surrounding
tissues, both bone and connective; and the mus-
cles. Measurements from the amputated tissues
were compared with the rat data; the patient was
discharged on July 27, 1947. Rat data showed
considerable uptake by the liver; human data
appears to show 13 to 20 percent uptake by the
bone. The patient died of preexisting ailments on
June 15, 1948. The experiment appears to have
been done as a comparison to previous human
subjects studies involving plutonium, as data
sheets for Cal-A show standards for measure-
ments set against Cal-1 (a human injected with
plutonium-238).
References
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Joseph G. Hamil-
ton Records, Archives and Records Office,
Folder No: Am H (95H).
LBL-9. Uptake of Iodine-131 in Thyroids of
Psychiatric Patients
From July 1949 to April 1950 a cooperative
research project was conducted by the Depart-
ments of Psychiatry, Radiology and Medicine at
the University of California Medical School and
the Langley Porter Clinic in San Francisco. The
objective of this project was to determine
whether thyroid function was normal or abnormal
in persons with mental illness. Sixty-five subjects
were selected from the regular in-patient group at
the Langley Porter Clinic. Among the subjects
were patients with schizophrenia, manic-depres-
sion, mixed psychoneurosis, and anorexia ner-
vosa. A control group was selected of volunteers
from the clinics, clerical, and medical staff. Sub-
jects were injected with 150 microcuries of
iodine-131 (I 131 ); subsequently, the concentration
of I 131 in the thyroid was then measured six times
over a 72-hour period. The test and control
groups underwent medical and psychiatric evalu-
ations , including serum-bound iodine, basal me-
tabolism, plasma cholesterol, and electroenceph-
alogram. No abnormal thyroid function was found
in the group with mental illness and no significant
differences were detected between the patients
and the controls in this study. This study was
partly funded by the U.S. Atomic Energy Com-
mission. (Previously described in #2 on the origi-
nal list of 48 experiments released by DOE in
June 1994)
References
Stone, R.S. Biological Effects of Radiations from
External and Internal Sources, Progress Report
July 1, 1949 to April 15, 1950. San Francisco:
University of California Radiation Laboratory,
April 1950. U.S. Department of Energy Archives,
Record Group 326, U.S. Atomic Energy Commis-
sion, Box 3358, Folder 22.
Bowman, K.M., E.R. Miller, M.E. Dailey, A. Si-
mon, B. Frankel, and G.W. Lowe. “Thyroid Func-
tion in Mental Disease Measured with Radioac-
tive Iodine, I 131 .” The American Journal of Psychi-
atry. Vol. 106, No. 7, February 1950. □
LBL-10. Sodium-24 Uptake Studies on
Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis
During the mid 1 940s to the early 1 950s, the Uni-
versity of California Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
conducted studies on the uptake of sodium-24
(Na 24 ) to evaluate vascular abnormalities in per-
sons with rheumatoid arthritis. Sodium-24 was
administered by intravenous injection, usually in
50-microcurie amounts. Systemic transport of Na 24
was followed using two gamma Geiger counters:
one in the subject’s hand, the other placed under a
knee. The results showed an impeded blood flow
in diseased areas of the body. Uptake of Na 24 in
242
Chapt e r 3. Human Radiation Experim ents — Lawrence Berkel ey Lab o ratory
the knee joint was also studied after three patients
drank a solution of sodium chloride labeled with
Na 24 in water.
References
Tobias, C. “Sodium Uptake Studies.” Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory, Cornelius A. Tobias Papers,
Accession 434-89-1 00, File Code 1 0-08-063,
Carton 25/38, Folder Sodium Uptake Studies. □
LBL.-11. Radiation-Related Studies Involving
inmates at San Quentin Prison
From 1949 to the late 1950s, the University of
California conducted studies involving radioactive
isotopes using inmates at San Quentin Prison as
volunteer subjects. Studies included the following:
(a) 1949 to 1951 : studies on red blood cell pro-
duction — Blood was drawn from participants, la-
beled with iron-59 (Fe 59 ), and reinjected into the
respective subjects. Four samples were drawn at
specific intervals over the next 2 hours. The proce-
dure was repeated for 4 successive days, during
which Fe 59 -labeled red blood cells were counted.
(b) 1950: studies on blood volume — At least 13
participants had blood drawn, labeled with
phosphorus-32 (P 32 ), and reinjected. Blood volume
in the subject was subsequently measured, (c) late
1950s: Studies on red cell volume — chromium-51
(Cr 51 ) was used as a label to measure red blood
cell volume in 201 healthy participants.
References
Letter. J.H. Lawrence to Mr. J.H. Corley. August
17, 1949. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. Adminis-
trative Files of Administrative Assistants to the
Directors of the Biology and Medicine Division and
Donner Laboratory, Accession 434-90-0209, File
Code 16-5-22, Carton 2, Folder “Historical
Donner Laboratory.”
Donner Laboratory Clinical Books, 1946-1977.
Patient Sheets from February to March 1950,
noted “San Quentin” after patient’s name. Law-
rence Berkeley Laboratory. Donner Laboratory
Clinical Logs and Notebooks, Accession
439-89-0151, File Code 8-2-2, Carton 7/10,
Binder No. 2.
Wennesland, R., E. Brown, J. Hopper, Jr., J.L.
Hodges, Jr., O.E. Guttentag, K.G. Scott, I.N.
Tucker, and B. Bradley. “Red Cell, Plasma, and
Blood Volume in Healthy Men Measured by
Radiochromium (Cr 51 ) Cel! Tagging and
Hemocrit.” The Journal of Clinical Investigation .
Vol. 38, No. 7, July 1959, pp. 1,065-1,077. □
LBL-12. Blood and Tissue Studies With
Iron-59
This research was conducted at the Donner Lab-
oratory, University of California at Berkeley, in the
early 1950s. The purpose of this study was to in-
vestigate the rates and pathways of iron transport
in the human body, including the differences in
iron turnover rates between normal individuals and
patients with anemia. The subjects consisted of 22
individuals with anemia and other diseases and 16
normal individuals. From 5 to 30 microcuries of
radioactive iron (Fe 59 ) globulin was injected intra-
venously to label the circulating plasma iron globu-
lin. External radiation measurements were made
on the liver, spleen, and bone marrow using a
gamma-fluorescence detector. In addition, plasma
and whole blood samples were analyzed for Fe 59
content. The results showed that iron turnover
rates varied, the exact rate depending on the dis-
ease state of the patient. This research was partly
funded by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Elmlinger P.J., R.L. Huff, C.A. Tobias, and J.H.
Lawrence. “Iron Turnover Abnormalities in
Patients Having Anemia: Serial Blood and In Vivo
Tissue Studies with Fe 59 .” Acta Haematologica.
Vol. 9, No. 2, February 1953, pp. 73-96.
Huff, R.L., C.A. Tobias, and J.H. Lawrence. “A
Test for Red Cell Production.” Acta Haemato-
logica. Vol. 7, No. 3, March 1952, pp. 129-143. □
LBL-13. Sodium-24 Uptake Studies on
Patients With Rheumatoid Arthritis
During the mid- 1 940s to the early 1 950s, the
University of California Lawrence Berkeley Labo-
ratory conducted studies on the uptake of
sodium-24 (Na 24 ) to evaluate vascular abnormali-
ties in persons with rheumatoid arthritis.
Sodium 24 was administered by intravenous injec-
tion, usually in 50-microcurie amounts. Systemic
transport of Na 24 was followed using two gamma
243
Human Radiation Experime nts: The DOE R oadmap to the Story an d th e Records
Geiger counters: one in the subject’s hand, the
other placed under a knee. The results showed
an impeded blood flow in diseased areas of the
body. Uptake of Na 24 in the knee joint was also
studied after three patients drank a solution of
sodium chloride labeled with Na 24 in water.
References
Tobias, C. “Sodium Uptake Studies.” Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory, Cornelius A. Tobias Pa-
pers, Accession 434-89-100, File Code
10-08-063, Carton 25/38, Folder Sodium Uptake
Studies. □
LBL-14. Studies on the Rate of Uptake of
iodine-131 in the Thyroid
In the early 1950s, studies were conducted at
the University of California, San Francisco on
various aspects of thyroid function in patients
with normal and abnormal thyroid glands. At least
427 subjects were studied; of these, at least 25
healthy individuals served as controls, 122 pa-
tients had normal thyroid function, and 110 pa-
tients had various thyroid problems. After the
subjects drank a solution containing approxi-
mately 100 microcuries of iodine-131 (I 131 ), an
external gamma counter was placed over the
thyroid to measure the uptake of radioiodine. A
good correlation was found between high rates of
uptake and hyperthyroidism and between lower
rates and absence of hyperthyroidism.
Further research was also conducted to study
aspects of the physiology of the thyroid and other
endocrine glands. Studies were conducted on
obese patients, and on adult and child hyperthy-
roid patients requiring thyroid stimulating hor-
mone. This research was funded by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Miller, E.R., M.E. Dailey, A.V. Holmes, G.L. Alex-
ander, and G.E. Sheline. “Studies with Radioio-
dine: I. Function and Rate of I 131 Uptake of Thy-
roid.” Radiology. Vol. 57, No.1, July 1951, pp.
37-47.
Annual Report of Cancer Activities of the Radio-
logical Laboratory. San Francisco: University of
California School of Medicine, 1953, pp.1-9.
Special Collections, The Library, University of
California, San Francisco. □
LBL-15. Measures of Body Fat and Related
Factors In Normal Adults Using
Potassium-40 and Cesium-137
From 1950 to 1960, the Donner Laboratory at
the University of California, Berkeley, in collabo-
ration with the California State Department of
Public Health and the Bureau of Public Health
Nutrition, conducted a series of experiments us-
ing potassium-40 (K 40 ) and cesium-137 (Cs 137 ) to
measure body composition. The experiments
were designed to accurately determine the hu-
man body’s total water content, body fat, protein
content, and bone mineral content. In all, 2,301
healthy volunteers were used for these experi-
ments. These individuals each received a letter
describing the purpose of the study and the pa-
rameters to be measured. The laboratony analy-
ses included measurements of total body water
after an oral tracer dose of tritium, analysis of
specific gravity by the helium dilution technique,
and whole body counting of K 40 . This study was
partly supported by a grant from the National
Institutes of Health.
References
Steinkamp, R.C., N.L. Cohen, W.R. Gaffey, T.
McKey, G. Bron, W.E. Siri, T.W. Sargent, and E.
Isaacs. “Measures of Body Fat and Related Fac-
tors in Normal Adults-ll.” Journal of Chronic Dis-
eases. Vol. 18, 1965, pp. 1,279-1,289. □
LBL-16. Study of Ascitic Fluid Using Tritium-
Labeled Water and Phosphorus-32
During 1951 and 1952, the University of California
Donner Laboratory and the Highland-Alameda
County Hospital, Oakland, CA, conducted experi-
ments to determine the total of ascitic fluids in
humans. Tritium (H 3 ) was used to trace the flow of
water into, and out from, the peritoneal cavity. Six
patients with ascites (a condition characterized by
fluid buildup in the peritoneal cavity) were injected
with 2 microcuries of tritium-labeled water, either
intravenously or intraperitoneally. Samples of
blood and ascitic fluid were taken over the follow-
ing 7 to 24 hours. Blood samples were labeled
244
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Experiments — Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
with phosphorus-32 (P 32 ) and one cc of the labeled
blood was injected into the peritoneal cavity. This
study showed that the water content of ascitic fluid
entered and left the peritoneal cavity at a very
rapid rate. It also showed that the peritoneal sur-
faces of both normal and diseased subjects reab-
sorbed large volumes of fluid. This work was sup-
ported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission
and the Life Insurance Medical Research Fund.
References
Prentice, T.C., W. Siri, and E.E. Jones. “Quanti-
tative Studies of Ascitic Fluid Circulation with
Tritium-Labeled Water.” American Journal of
Medicine. Vol. 13, No. 6, December 1952, pp.
668-673. □
LBL-17. A Physiological Study in the
Peruvian Andes Using Iron-59
The Donner Laboratory of Medical Physics,
University of California, Berkeley, used iron-59
(Fe 59 ) in high-altitude studies similar to the previ-
ously conducted studies using tritium (H 3 ). The
purpose of these experiments was to investigate
the physiology of reduced barometric pressure,
particularly as seen in high-altitude flights, and
the physiology and treatment of various hemato-
poietic (blood-forming) disorders, especially poly-
cythemia rubra vera, leukemia, and aplastic ane-
mia. In these studies, reported in 1952, healthy
subjects (medical students from the University of
San Marcos, Lima, Peru) and native Peruvians in
the Andes mountains were studied. Four Andean
natives suffering from pulmonary silicosis (as
well as high-altitude polycythemia rubra vera)
were also studied. A few micrograms of Fe 59
were incubated for 20 minutes with 10 to 20 milli-
liters of the subject’s plasma and then injected
into the subjects. After injection, Fe 59 analysis
was made on plasma samples taken at hourly
intervals for 4 to 5 hours. Acclimatization to high
altitude was found to be related to changes in
blood volume, plasma volume, and red blood-cell
mass. Post-plasma-iron turnover rates and red
cell renewal rates increased to roughly twice their
normal values in less than 12 hours at high alti-
tude. This study was supported by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission, United States Navy
and the United States Air Force.
References
Lawrence, J.H., R.L. Huff, W. Siri, L.R.
Wasserman, and T.G. Hennessy. “A Physiologi-
cal Study in the Peruvian Andes.” Acta Medica
Scandinavica. Vol. CXLII (II), 1952,
pp.117-133. □
LBL-18. Studies on the Metabolism of
. Glycine Labeled With n-14
In experiments reported in 1952 and 1953, nine
terminally ill patients received intravenous injec-
tions of 100 microcuries of glycine labeled with
carbon-14 (C 14 ) in an attempt to determine the
urinary excretion of C 14 , the elimination of C 14 in
the breath, the tissue distribution levels of C 14 ,
and the life span of red blood cells in leukemia
and polycythemia rubra vera. For four patients,
autopsies were carried out within 12 hours after
death. Of these patients, the first was autopsied
57 days after administration of the isotope, the
second after 105 days, the third after 152 days,
and the fourth after 526 days. The study was
conducted by the Section on Experimental Medi-
cine, Donner Laboratory of Medical Physics and
the Radiation Laboratory, University of California,
Berkeley. It was supported by the U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission.
References
Berlin, N.I., B.M. Tolbert, and C. Lotz. “Studies in
Glycine-2-C 14 Metabolism in Man II. Tissue Distri-
bution.” Journal of Clinical Investigation. Vol. 31 ,
1952, pp. 335-337.
Berlin, N.I., B.M. Tolbert, and H.C. Lee. ‘The
Metabolism of Glycine-2-C 14 in Man. III. The Uri-
nary Excretion of C 14 and Cumulative Radiation
Dosimetry.” Journal of Clinical Investigation. Vol.
32, 1953, pp. 1-4. □
LBL-19. Astatine -211 and the Thyroid
The objective of this experiment was to test the
uptake of astatine-211 (At 211 ) and to evaluate its
potential benefits in the treatment of thyroid dis-
eases. Eight human subjects were injected with
50 microcuries of the 7-hour half-life alpha emit-
ter At 211 ). These experiments were conducted at
the University of California Hospital during early
245
Human Radiation Experiments: The DO E Roadmap to the Story and the Records
1954. (Previously described in #37 on the original
list of 48 experiments released by DOE in June
1994)
References
Hamilton, J.G., P.W. Durbin, and M.W. Parrott.
“Accumulation of Astatine by Thyroid Gland in
Man.” in Proceedings of the Society for Experi-
mental Biology and Medicine. Vol. 86, 1954, pp.
366-369.
Hamilton, J. G., P.W. Durbin, and M.W. Parrott.
“Comparison of Acute and Chronic Changes Pro-
duced in Rats by I 131 and At 211 at Lethal Levels.
Preliminary Data on the Uptake of At 211 in Pa-
tients with Thyroid Disease.” Chapter 24 in Pro-
ceedings of the 2nd Radioisotope Conference in
Oxford, England, July 1954. London: Butterworth
Scientific Publications, pp. 219-231. □
In 1954, scientists from the Donner Laboratory,
University of California, Berkeley, and the Instituto
de Biologia Andina, Lima, Peru, used tritium (H 3 )
to determine changes in weight and total body
water for subjects living in Lima at high altitudes
and at sea level. Two groups of subjects were
studied. The first group consisted of 15 young
male medical students; the second group con-
sisted of 1 3 normal male Peruvian Indian mine
workers. The tritium was administered both orally
and intravenously. The mean values of body water
for the two groups was normal for their age range
and occupations. This research was supported by
the Public Health Service, the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission, and the U.S. Air Force.
References
Siri, W.E., C. Reynafarje, N.l. Berlin, and J.H.
Lawrence. “Body Water at Sea Level and at Alti-
tude.” The Journal of Applied Physiology. Vol. 7,
No. 3, November 1954, pp. 333-334. □
LBL.-21. High-Energy Beam Irradiation of
Breast Cancer Patients
About 1955, the University of California Radia-
tion Laboratory conducted studies on high-energy
proton beam irradiation of the human pituitary
gland, using breast cancer patients as subjects.
The purpose of the studies was to determine
whether irradiation of the pituitary gland would
cause regression of tumor growth. Twenty-six
patients with metastatic breast carcinoma and
ranging in age from 27 to 70 participated in the
study. Patients came from all parts of the United
States, traveling to the Donner Laboratory in
Berkeley for treatment. Cumulative doses ranged
from 9,000 to 32,000 rads. During the course of
the study, patients were irradiated in small doses
three times per week. As the study progressed
and the effects were observed, individual and
cumulative dose levels were increased, and the
time required for the entire course or irradiation
was decreased. The first patient received 14,000
rads over a 63-day period. Later patients re-
ceived as much as 30,000 rads in six sessions
within 2 weeks. Pituitary function was assessed
by measuring thyroid uptake of radioiodine
(iodine-131) and by measuring 24-hour pituitary
hormone excretion in the urine. The studies dem-
onstrated decreased pituitary function and both
gross and microscopic damage to the pituitary
gland. A few of the patients studied showed clini-
cal evidence of improvement. At about the same
time, four additional cancer patients were simi-
larly irradiated in a separate study, but results
were not reported with those of the breast cancer
patients. This work was supported by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Tobias, C.A., J.H. Lawrence, J.L. Born, R.K.
McCombs, J.E. Roberts, H.O. Anger, B.V.A.
Low-Beer, and C.B. Huggins. “Pituitary Irradiation
with High-Energy Proton Beams: A Preliminary
Report.” Cancer Research. Vol. 1 8, No. 2, Febru-
ary, 1958, pp. 121-134. □
Studies were conducted in 1959 at the University
of California Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, on
the metabolism of iron in humans using iron-59
(Fe 59 ) as a tracer. The aim of these studies was to
determine the effects of age, gender, and health
status on iron metabolism in humans. Approxi-
mately 80 cancer patients and subjects with
various anemias, hemochromatosis (a disease
246
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Experiments — Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
characterized by an excessive absorption of iron),
and iron deficiencies were used in these studies.
The rate of hemoglobin synthesis, mean red-
blood-cell life span, and mean time required for
hemoglobin formation within the total red-cell vol-
ume were measured. Gastrointestinal bleeding
was correlated with iron and red cell movement in
seven human subjects. This work was supported
by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Polycove, M. and J.H. Lawrence. “Iron Metabo-
lism.” University of California Lawrence Radiation
Laboratory Project Description. June 30, 1959.
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Cornelius A.
Tobias Papers, Accession 434-92-0154, File
Code 19-14-43, Carton 21, Folder Program
Book. □
In the early 1960s, at the Donner Laboratory
and the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Univer-
sity of California, Berkeley, iron-52 (Fe 52 ), iron-59
(Fe 59 ) and technetium-99m (Tc" m )-sulfur colloids
were administered to study marrow distribution.
The marrow, liver, and spleen were then imaged,
using conventional scanners or scintillation cam-
eras. Administered activities ranged from 3 to
100 microcuries. Samples of bone marrow,
plasma, red cells, and liver were analyzed to de-
termine tissue activity over time. Subjects in-
cluded hospital patients and normal volunteers,
including children. This work was supported in
part by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission and
in part by a grant from the National Cancer Insti-
tute of the National Institutes of Health.
References
Van Dyke D.C., H.O. Anger, and Y. Yano. “Prog-
ress in Determining Bone Marrow Distribution
In Vivo.” Progress in Atomic Medicine. Vo!. 2,
1968, pp. 65-84.
Lawrence, J.H. “Positron Emitting Isotopes: Inves-
tigative and Diagnostic Studies.” pp. 247-262.
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, John Hundale
Lawrence Files, Accession 434-92-0066, File
Code 19-14-6, Carton 15, Folder Positron Emit-
ting Isotopes. □
LBL-24, Iron Kinetics and Hemoglobin
objects \
i
This study was conducted in about 1959 at the
University of California, Berkeley, in collaboration
with the Veterans Administration in Boston. Its
purpose was to develop a suitable mathematical
model of hemoglobin synthesis, using sequential
measurements of iron-59 present in human blood
plasma, red cells, and peripheral blood. Data were
obtained from 13 normal, healthy subjects (1 fe-
male and 12 male volunteers) between the ages of
24 and 72 years, plus 6 male hospital patients with
endogenous hemochromatosis. Five to 20 millili-
ters of plasma labeled with 10 to 40 microcuries of
iron-59 (Fe 59 ) were intravenously injected into the
subjects. Plasma and erythrocyte radioactivity
were measured with a scintillation counter. This
study was supported by the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission with partial support by a grant from
the U.S. Public Heath Service.
References
Pollycove, M. and R. Mortimer. ‘The Quantitative
Determination of Iron Kinetics and Hemoglobin
Synthesis in Human Subjects.” Journal of Clinical
Investigation. Vol. 40, 1961, pp. 753-772. □
LBL-25. Intestinal iron Absorption Studies
Using iron-52, Iron-55, and Iron-59
In a study conducted at the Donner Laboratory,
University of California, Berkeley, in 1966, radioac-
tive isotopes of iron were used to measure the rate
of iron absorption into the plasma and its distribu-
tion in the gastrointestinal tract. Forty microcuries
of iron-52 (Fe 52 ) were administered orally to 6 fast-
ing normal subjects. Just prior to the oral dose,
iron turnover studies were performed using 2
microcuries of transferrin-bound iron-59 (Fe 59 ) in-
jected intravenously; the subjects were then whole
body counted. For the iron turnover studies, 20 to
30 microcuries of iron-55 (Fe 55 ) were injected into
the same subjects. Photoscans of the abdomen
using the Anger Positron Camera were taken
throughout the study. The maximum rate of intesti-
nal iron absorption was found to occur at the time
when iron was in the upper gastrointestinal tract.
This work was supported by the U.S. Atomic En-
ergy Commission.
247
Human Radiation E xper im ents: The DOE Ro adm ap to t he Story a nd th e Records
References
Fawwaz, R.A., H.S. Winchell, M. Pollycove, T.
Sargent, H. Anger, and J.H. Lawrence. “Intestinal
Iron Absorption Studies Using Iron-52 and Anger
Positron Camera.” Journal of Nuclear Medicine.
Vol. 7, 1966, pp. 569-576. □
LBL-26. Chromium-51 Metabolism Studies in
Patients with Hemochromatosis
Chromium-51 metabolism studies were con-
ducted at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory on
healthy males and on patients with hemochroma-
tosis (a disease characterized by an excessive
absorption of iron). Five normal, male subjects
were injected with 100 microcuries of chromium-
51 to study the retention of chromium. This study
was conducted to show that homochromatic dia-
betes was due to the exclusion of chromium from
either the carrying agent or from the liver be-
cause of saturation by iron. Eleven subjects were
injected with Cr 51 -chloride. Among the subjects
were patients with varying degrees of hemochro-
matosis, including two hemochromatotic patients
depleted of excess iron and two subjects with
excess iron but no clinical disease. All of the sub-
jects were followed by whole body counting for
up to 6 months. The results showed that the ex-
clusion of chromium occurs principally at binding
sites in the liver. Two further studies were con-
ducted on chromium metabolism using plasma
analysis, Cr 51 clearance rates, the whole body
scanner, and the whole body counter. This work
was supported by the U.S. Department of En-
ergy.
References
Sargent T. W. and H.H. Stauffer. “Human In Vivo
Kinetics of Radionuclide Trace Metals in Health
and Disease.” University of California Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory Project Description. May 1 ,
1976. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Cornelius
A. Tobias Papers, Accession 434-32-0154, File
Code 19-14-43, Carton 22, UCLBL Project De-
scriptions.
Lim, T.H., T. Sargent, and N. Kusubov. “Kinetics
of Trace Element Chromium (III) in the Human
Body.” American Journal of Physiology. Vol. 244,
Vol. 4, April 1983, pp. R445-454. □
LBL-27,
This research was conducted at the Berkeley
Donner Laboratory in the early 1970s. This study
was undertaken to determine the rate of uptake
and retention of calcium-47 (Ca 47 ) in juvenile dia-
betics. The subjects consisted of eight healthy
individuals, of various ages and diets, and three
juvenile diabetics (ages 23, 26, and 26). One to
25 microcuries of Ca 47 was intravenously admin-
istered and the retention of Ca 47 in the whole
body was determined by direct in vivo counting.
The whole body retention of Ca 47 did not signifi-
cantly vary over the wide range of calcium and
protein intakes and ages of healthy subjects. Dia-
betics excreted Ca 47 at a higher rate. This work
showed a decreased rate of bone mineralization
in diabetics. The research was supported by the
Energy Research and Development Administra-
tion.
References
Sargent, T., J. Linfoot, and H. Stauffer. “De-
creased Whole Body Retention of Ca 47 in Juve-
nile Diabetics.” IRCS Medical Science Journal.
Vol. 4, 1976, p. 58.
Sargent T. W. and H.H. Stauffer. “Human In Vivo
Kinetics of Radionuclide Trace Metals in Health
and Disease.” University of California Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory Project Description. May 1 ,
1976. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Cornelius
A. Tobias Papers, Accession 434-32-0154, File
Code 19-14-43, Carton 22, UCLBL Project De-
scriptions. □
LBL-28. Whole Body Counting Studies on
the Retention of Copper-67 and
Phosphorus-32
In the mid- to late 1970s, the University of Cali-
fornia Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory conducted
studies on the retention of radionuclides in hu-
mans. The subjects were healthy individuals and
patients with a variety of diseases. The protocol
for each study with each isotope was separately
approved by the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
for Safeguards in Human Research on Human
Subjects. Four subjects were injected with 100
microcuries of copper-67 (Cu 67 ) to determine
248
Chap ter 3. Human Radiation E xp eriments — Lawrence Livermore National Laborato ry
copper uptake, retention, and excretion rates. Of
the four subjects, three were healthy, and one
had a copper storage disease. The results
showed that there is no abnormality of total body
turnover of copper when iron stores are normal.
Results also showed that for the subject with the
copper storage disease, the excretion of copper
was slower than for normal subjects by a factor
of two. Six subjects with diseases related to bone
marrow production were injected with 1 to 5
millicuries of phosphorus-32 (P 32 ) to determine
excretion rates. This was one of the first pub-
lished studies on human whole body phosphorus
turnover. This work was supported by the U.S.
Department of Energy.
References
Sargent, T. W. and H. Stauffer. “Whole body
Counting of Retention of Cu 67 , P 32 , and Cr 51 in
Man.” International Journal of Nuclear Medicine
and Biology. Vol. 6, 1979, pp. 17-21. □
LBL-29. Metabolism of Carbon-1 4-Labeled
Methionine in Schizophrenics
This research was conducted in the 1980s at
the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. Researchers
suspected that a defect in the methyl-carbon
metabolic pathway was a causative factor in
schizophrenia. Methionine labeled with carbon-11
(C 11 ) or carbon-14 (C 14 ) was administered to both
schizophrenics and healthy subjects to test this
hypothesis. The oxidation of methionine was
studied in seven unmedicated schizophrenics,
and the effect of high and low methionine in the
diet was studied in control subjects. This re-
search was supported by the National Institute of
Mental Health, the Donner Laboratory, and the
U.S. Department of Energy.
References
Sargent, T.W., N. Kusubov, S. Taylor, and T.F.
Budinger. ‘Tracer Kinetic Evidence for Abnormal
Methyl Metabolism in Schizophrenia.” Biological
Psychiatry. Vol. 32, 1992, pp. 1,078-1,090.
Sargent, T.W. “Metabolism in Brain Disorders.”
U.S. Department of Energy Field Task Pro-
posal/Agreement. April 1 , 1 982. Lawrence Berke-
ley Laboratory, Cornelius A. Tobias Papers, Ac-
cession 434-92-0154, File Code 19-14-43,
Carton 21 , Field Task Proposals/Agreements.
Sargent, T.W. “Metabolism of [1 4-C-Methy]-Me-
thionine in Schizophrenia and Affective Disor-
ders.” Public Health Service, Food and Drug Ad-
ministration, Radioactive Drug Research Com-
mittee, Report on Research Use of Radioactive
Drug Study Summary. Lawrence Berkeley Labo-
ratory, Director’s Office — LBL Associated Lab,
Director for Administration R&D Files —
1981-1987, Accession 434-91-0176, File Code
13-11-14, Carton 58/58, Folder Biol-
ogy/Medicine General FY87. □
Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory
LJLNL-1. In Vivo Calibration Studies Using
Humans Administered Niobium-92m,
Barium-133, Palladium-103,
Chromium-51 , and Strontium-85
The purpose of these studies was to develop
accurate calibration factors for in vivo counting
equipment and to cross-calibrate the various
U.S. and European counting centers. Volunteer
subjects were administered radionuclides at
Harwell Laboratory (United Kingdom) and were
whole-body or chest counted at the Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory and at other
Department of Energy contractor in vivo counting
facilities in the U.S. Two subjects were from Law-
rence Livermore Laboratory and the remainder
were from the United Kingdom.
This study was broad in scope and spanned sev-
eral years. From 1972 to 1976, three males in-
haled palladium-103 (Pd 103 ) and chromium-51
(Cr^-labeled microspheres and were counted in
14 labs in Europe and the United States. From
1979 to 1982, 18 men inhaled niobium-92m
(Nb^-labeled microspheres and were counted
at several labs. During the 1988 to 1990 period,
five males, who earlier had inhaled Nb 92 " 1 , were
again exposed to Nb 92m and counted. Two of
these five were injected with barium-1 33 (Ba 133 )
in March 1 986 and one of those two was injected
with strontium-85 (Sr 85 ) in June 1987. This re-
search was jointly sponsored by the Atomic En-
ergy Research Establishment — Harwell, British
249
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
Nuclear Fuels, the General Electricity Generating
Board, the International Atomic Energy Agency,
and the U.S. Department of Energy (and its pre-
decessor agencies). (Previously described in #15
on the original list of 48 experiments released by
DOE in June 1994)
References
Newton, D., F.A. Fry, B.T. Taylor, M.C. Eagle,
and R.C. Sharma. “Intralaboratory Comparison of
Techniques for Measuring Lung Burdens of Low-
Energy Photon Emitters.” Health Physics. Vol.
35, 1978, pp. 751-777.
Dean, P.N., R.V. Griffith, and A.L. Anderson.
“Design Criteria for Phantoms for Calibration of
External Detectors for the In Vivo Assay of Pluto-
nium.” Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory,
UCRL-76411, November 17, 1975.
Anderson, A.L. and G.W. Campbell. “LLL Pluto-
nium Lung Counter Calibration and Discussion of
Errors.” Lawrence Livermore National Labora-
tory, UCRL-78409, June 20, 1976.
Swinth, K.L., W.J. Bair, P.N. Dean, J. Rundo,
and F.K. Tomlinson. “Status and Trends in the
External Counting of Inhaled Heavy Elements
Deposited In Vivo.’’ Lawrence Livermore Labora-
tory, UCRL-83949, February 5, 1980.
Newton, D., G.W. Campbell, A.L. Anderson, and
J.C. Fisher. “Consistent X-Ray Counting Efficien-
cies for Plutonium In Lungs, Derived by Inde-
pendent Methods.” Lawrence Livermore Labora-
tory, UCRL-83946, February 4, 1980.
Campbell, G.W., A.L. Anderson, F.A. Fry, D.
Newton, and D. Ramsden. “Calibration of
Phoswich Detectors for Assessment of Pluto-
nium in Lungs: The Methods of Four Laborato-
ries Compared.” Lawrence Livermore Laboratory,
UCRL-84516, June 11, 1980. □
LLNL-2. Ozone Effects on Overall and
Regional Lung Function
In this collaboration between the University of
Washington (Seattle) and Lawrence Livermore
Laboratory, the impact of ozone on the human
lungs was studied. The objective was to deter-
mine the functional changes that might result
from low ozone levels in smog. Four healthy,
male subjects were exposed to low (0.4 part per
million by volume) concentrations of nonradioac-
tive ozone for a total of 2.5 hours. Periods of ex-
ercise and rest were alternated during the expo-
sure. The subjects then inhaled small quantities
of radioisotope-labeled gas mixtures for the pur-
pose of measuring lung function. The first mix-
ture was a blend of 20 percent oxygen and 80
percent nitrogen-15 (N 15 ), intended to simulate
air. The second mix contained 10 percent
carbon-15 labeled carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) in air.
The results of this test suggested that ozone
caused nonuniform mechanical alteration to the
central and peripheral airways. The study was
performed under a contract from the U.S. De-
partment of Energy from 1 977 to 1 978 and in
part by a grant from the National Heart, Lung,
and Blood Institute. (Previously described in #16
on the original list of 48 experiments released by
DOE in June 1994)
References
Meyer, P. “Ozone, Respiration, and the Bends.”
Energy and Technology Review. Lawrence
Livermore Laboratory, UCRL-52000-81-12, De-
cember 1 981 , pp. 22-31 .
"Ozone Effects on Overall and Regional Lung
Function.” Lawrence Livermore National Labora-
tory Review Board File. LLNL B361 Rm. B940A,
Institutional Review Board, IRB Protocol File, Ac-
tive Grants — Collaborative, University of Washing-
ton Ozone Effect on Overall Lung Function. □
LLNL-3. Decompression Sickness Studies
Using Nitrogen-15 and Argon-41
A joint study between the Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory and the U.S. Navy was
conducted during the 1980s, using the radionu-
clide tracers nitrogen-15 (N 15 ) and argon-41 (Ar 41 )
to determine information on the uptake and clear-
ance of nitrogen gas in man. This research was
necessary to better understand decompression
sickness of deep-sea divers, which results from
excessive accumulation of inert gases (stable
nitrogen and argon) in divers’ bodies. More than
one experiment was conducted during this col-
laboration. In one such study, nine normal,
healthy human subjects (Navy volunteers)
breathed air containing N 15 and Ar 41 and then
250
Chap t er 3. Human Radiation E xpe riments — Los Alamos National Laboratory
waited 40 to 100 minutes to allow redistribution
and washout. The subjects were then monitored
using positron detectors to determine the con-
centration of N 15 and Ar 41 remaining in the body.
The amounts of N 15 and Ar 41 inhaled depended
on the amounts breathed by the subjects. This
air contained about one microcurie of N 13 and 24
microcuries of Ar 41 per liter of breathing air. Ab-
sorbed doses to subjects were estimated to be
about 0.3 to 0.5 rad to the lungs and trachea and
0.01 rad to the whole body. The experiment met
the requirements of both the Navy’s and Law-
rence Livermore National Laboratory’s human
subjects committees. This work was supported
by the Naval Medical Research Institute and the
U.S. Department of Energy. (Previously de-
scribed in #14 on the original list of 48 experi-
ments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Weathersby, P.K., P. Meyer, E.T. Flynn, L.D. Ho-
mer, and S. Survanshi. “Nitrogen Gas Exchange
in the Human Knee.” Journal of Applied Physiol-
ogy. Vol. 61, No. 4, October 1986, pp.
1,534-1,545.
Meyer, P. “Ozone, Respiration, and the Bends.”
Energy and Technology Review. Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory, UCRL-52000-
81-12, December 1981, pp. 22-31. □
Los Alamos National Laborator;
LANL-1. Tritium Studies at Los Alamos
Scientific Laboratory
During the early 1950s, Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratory conducted studies on the human up-
take, distribution, and retention of tritium (H 3 ).
Three volunteers, all researchers working on the
studies, participated as subjects. In one experi-
ment, a male subject immersed his arm up to the
elbow in water containing 0.1 millicurie of tritium
per cubic centimeter.
This study showed that the rate of absorption
through the skin was too slow to pose a hazard.
The whole body would have to be immersed for
more than an hour before an Atomic Energy
Commission recommended exposure limit was
reached. In another study, all three subjects
inhaled for 4 to 5 minutes oxygen that was satu-
rated with tritium water vapor (HTO) which, when
condensed, contained 1.16 millicuries of tritium
per milliliter of water. Results showed that 98-99
percent of the tritium was retained in the body
after inhalation.
In a third study, the three subjects drank water
containing tritium. Water volumes ranged from
100 to 1,000 milliliters (V3 to 4 cups) and level of
activity ranged from 1 ,640 to 2,920 microcuries.
These studies showed that water absorption from
the gastrointestinal tract begins 2 to 9 minutes
after ingestion, that absorption is a linear function
of time, and that it is proportional to the amount
ingested. All these studies were used to establish
standards for occupational exposure to tritium.
This work was supported by the U.S. Atomic En-
ergy Commission. (These experiments were ref-
erenced in the Markey report.)
References
Pinson, E.A. The Body Absorption, Distribution,
and Excretion of Tritium in Man and Animals. Los
Alamos: Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory,
LA-1218, March 12, 1951.
Pinson, E.A. Lung Absorption of HTO by Man
Upon Inspiration of HTO Water Vapor. Los
Alamos: Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory,
LA-1465, June 1952.
Pinson, E.A. The Body Absorption of Ingested
Tritium Water and the Water Dilution Volume of
Man. Los Alamos: Los Alamos Scientific Labora-
tory, LA-1464, June 1952. □
LANL-2. Metabolism of EDTA in Humans
In 1953, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory con-
ducted studies on the human metabolism of the
chelating agent ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
(EDTA) labeled with carbon-14. The purpose
was to gain information that would help establish
optimum dosage schedules and identify any
harmful effects. Twelve young adult healthy
males served as subjects in four groups of three.
One group was administered an intravenous in-
jection of 2.2 milligrams of C 14 -labeled EDTA; the
second received an intramuscular injection of 2.2
milligrams; the third received oral administration
251
Human Radiation Experi m ents: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Record s
of 1.5 milligrams; and the fourth group had 2.0
milligrams applied directly to the skin.
The studies showed that EDTA passed through
the body essentially unchanged and that it was
excreted primarily by the kidney within 1 hour of
intravenous injection and 1.5 hours of intramus-
cular injection. It is poorly absorbed in the gastro-
intestinal tract and practically not at all through
the skin. This work was supported by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission. (Previously de-
scribed in #43 on the original list of 48 experi-
ments released by DOE in June 1 994)
References
Foreman, H. and T.T. Trujillo. ‘The Metabolism
of C 14 Labeled Ethylenediaminetetraacetic Acid in
Human Beings.” The Journal of Laboratory and
Clinical Medicine. Vol. 43, No. 4, pp. 566-571.
Biomedical Research Group of the Health Division
Annual Report 1953. Los Alamos: Los Alamos
Scientific Laboratory, LA-1 690, 1 954, p. 1 7. O
LANL-3. Radiation Exposure of Aircrews in
Mushroom Clouds
During the 1955 TEAPOT and the 1956 RED-
WING nuclear test series, manned aircraft were
used to map the amount and distribution of radia-
tion within some of the resulting “mushroom”
clouds. The objective was to obtain information
needed to plan for the safe and effective use of
military aircraft in cloud areas during combat op-
erations. Studies conducted in 1953 using animal
subjects in drone aircraft had previously shown
that it would be safe for manned aircraft to enter
atomic clouds relatively soon after detonation.
Penetrations of clouds from low-yield detonations
were made during Operation TEAPOT in 1955.
Penetrations of the larger clouds from high-yield
detonations were made during Operation RED-
WING in 1956. Special radiation exposure limits,
in excess of the usual 3.9 roentgens Maximum
Permissible Exposure, were established for
some of these flight crews. During Operation
TEAPOT, 4 Air Force officers were permitted to
receive up to 15 roentgens, and 2 received this
amount. Exposures of up to 25 roentgens were
permitted during Operation REDWING, but no
one received this amount; the largest doses were
approximately 15 roentgens for three officers.
Pre- and postmission urine tests and evaluation
in whole body counters showed no significant
internal deposition of fission products or
unfissioned plutonium. This work was supported
by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. (This
experiment was referenced in the Markey report.)
References
Headquarters Field Command. “The Radiation
Hazards to Personnel Within an Atomic Cloud.”
Report of Operation UPSHOT/KNOTHOLE
Project 4. 1. Armed Forces Special Weapons
Center, WT-743. Reynolds Electrical and Engi-
neering Co., Inc., Coordination and Information
Center, Las Vegas, NV, CIC Document 40992.
Headquarters Field Command. “Manned Pene-
tration of Atomic Clouds.” Report of Operation
TEAPOT Project 2.8a. Armed Forces Special
Weapons Center, WT-1156. Reynolds Electrical
and Engineering Co., Inc., Coordination and In-
formation Center, Las Vegas, NV, CIC Document
12800.
Headquarters Field Command. “Early Cloud Pen-
etrations.” Report of Operation REDWING Pro-
ject 2.66a. Armed Forces Special Weapons Cen-
ter, WT-1320. Reynolds Electrical and Engineer-
ing Co., Inc., Coordination and Information Cen-
ter, Las Vegas, NV, CIC Document 68117. □
LANL-4. Determination of the Survival Time
of Red Blood Cells by Chromium-51
A study was conducted by Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratory in 1 957 to determine the survival times
of circulating blood red blood cells in healthy and
diseased subjects. Thirty-two human subjects (7
healthy and 25 diseased) received intravenous
injection of samples of their own red blood cells
that had been previously removed and tagged with
radioactive chromium-51 (Cr 51 ). After tagging, the
red cells were injected back into the donor, and
the person’s uptake and radioactivity was as-
sessed in the whole body counter. Half-times for
the survival of the chromium tag were determined.
Large volumes of urine were also obtained from
the subjects and counted to determine excretion
rates. This research was supported by the U.S.
252
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Experiments — Los Alamos National Laboratory
Atomic Energy Commission. (Previously described
in #26 on the original list of 48 experiments re-
leased by DOE in June 1994)
References
“Application of Low Level in Vivo Counting Tech-
niques to Clinical Investigations.” H-Division
Progress Report August 20, 1 948-September
20, 1948. Los Alamos: Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratory, LAMS-790, pp. 62-63. □
Scientists at the Los Alamos Scientific Labora-
tory conducted a series of studies to determine
the metabolism and excretion of alkali metals as
part of a general research program on the reten-
tion, excretion, and absorption of radioactive ma-
terials in humans. Sodium-22 (Na 22 ), potassium-
42 (K 42 ), and rubidium-86 (Rb 86 ) were adminis-
tered orally to 10 normal, healthy human subjects
and were measured at various times thereafter in
the whole body counter. The distribution and re-
tention patterns for these materials were deter-
mined periodically for about 1 year. Radiocesium
(Cs 134 or Cs 137 ) was also administered and mea-
sured. These experiments are described sepa-
rately, under LANL-8. This research was sup-
ported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
(Previously described in #25 on the original list of
48 experiments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Richmond, C.R. “Retention and Excretion of
Radionuclides of the Alkali Metals by Five Mam-
malian Species.” Biological and Medical Re-
search Group of the Health Division Semiannual
Report July-December 1959. Los Alamos: Los
Alamos Scientific Laboratory, LAMS-2445, 1960,
pp. 71-79. □
LANL-6. Absorption and Retention of Orally
Administered Iron-59 in Humans
This study was conducted at Los Alamos Scien-
tific Laboratory in 1959. The purpose was to de-
termine the absorption and retention of orally
administered iron in human subjects. A second
objective was to evaluate the whole body
counting technique and equipment as a tool for
measuring iron in the human body. Sixty-six sub-
jects were part of this test, including 1 pregnant
woman and 4 children. Also included in the study
were hospital patients with anemia, leukemia, or
polycythemia rubra vera. Each of the study par-
ticipants ingested 0.5 to 0.7 microcuries of iron-
59 (Fe 59 ) as ferrous citrate in water. The oral
dose was followed with an additional 100 to 200
milliliters of tap water to wash the radioactive iron
into the stomach. Body counting and fecal bioas-
say were used to determine the relationship be-
tween ingested, retained, and excreted iron.
The study showed that there was an apparent
lack of iron absorption with leukemia and
infection. Also, the pregnant woman absorbed
larger amounts of iron. This study was supported
by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. (Previ-
ously described in #40 on the original list of 48
experiments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Lushbaugh, C.C. and D.B. Hale. “Clinical Appli-
cations of Whole body Counting: A Clinical Com-
parison of the Absorbability of Ferrous versus
Ferric Salts in Normal Human Subjects.” Biologi-
cal and Medical Research Group of the Health
Division Semiannual Report July 1961 -June
1962. Los Alamos: Los Alamos Scientific Labora-
tory, LAMS-2780, 1 962, pp. 337-347. □
LANL-7, Determining Thyroid Uptake and
Retention of Iodine-131
In 1959, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory con-
ducted studies on whole body measurement
techniques for determining thyroid uptake of
iodine-131 (I 131 ). Seventeen normal or ill male or
female patients ranging in age from 10 to 57
drank water solutions containing 1 .5 to 3.0
microcuries of I 131 as sodium iodide. Study re-
sults showed that the whole body liquid scintil-
lometer measurement technique provided a sim-
ple, valid means of determining thyroid uptake
and thyroid function. Additional studies were con-
ducted to address how thyroid retention changed
with disease, chemotherapy, and metabolic sta-
tus. These studies involved some of the same
patients, but added others, as well. Six children
253
Human Radiatio n E xperiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Sto r y and the Records
whose thyroid gland had been removed were
added, as was one patient with an overactive
thyroid and one patient with an underactive thy-
roid. A total of 63 patients were administered I 131
either orally or intravenously in these studies.
These studies showed that retention rates in dis-
eased patients varied widely from normal rates,
and that retention was influenced by therapy.
This work was supported by the U.S. Atomic En-
ergy Commission. (Previously described in #45
on the original list of 48 experiments released by
DOE in June 1994)
References
Lushbaugh, C.C. and P.S. New. “Clinical Applica-
tions of Whole Body Scintillometry. II. A Compari-
son of Three Different Methods of Determining
Retention and Thyroid Uptake of Orally Adminis-
tered I 131 . " Biological and Medical Research Group
of the Health Division Semiannual Report July-
December 1959. Los Alamos: Los Alamos Scien-
tific Laboratory, LAMS-2445, 1 960, pp. 348-360.
Lushbaugh, C.C. and D.B. Hale. “Clinical Appli-
cations of Whole Body Scintillometry. III. Whole
Body Retention of Iodine-131 as a Method of
Studying Thyroid Function in Man.” Biological
and Medical Research Group of the Health
Division Semiannual Report July-December
1959. Los Alamos: Los Alamos Scientific Labora-
tory, LAMS-2445, 1960, pp. 361-373. □
LANL-8. Long-Term Retention of Cesium-134
and Cesium-137 in Humans
From about 1959 to 1 961 , a study was conducted
at the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory on the
long-term retention of radioactive cesium (Cs) in
humans. Four healthy, adult males participated in
this study. Two of subjects received oral doses of
1 and 1.4 microcuries cesium-134 (Cs 134 ) as ce-
sium chloride. The subjects were followed by
whole body counting for 106 and 910 days, re-
spectively, to determine the gastrointestinal tract
uptake and whole body retention with time. The
other two subjects were administered about 1 mi-
crocurie Cs 137 and were followed by whole body
counting for about 500 days. This study showed
that the biological retention half-time of cesium in
man was about 137 days. This work was sup-
ported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
(Previously described in #25 on the original list of
48 experiments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Richmond, C.R., J.E. Furchner, and W.H. Lang-
ham. “Long-Term Retention of Radiocesium by
Man.” Biological and Medical Research Group of
the Health Division Semiannual Report January-
June 1961. Los Alamos: Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratory, LAMS-2627, 1961, pp. 163-174. □
A STUDY WAS performed at Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratory, in 1 960 to determine the retention
and excretion of iodine-131 (I 131 ) by humans.
Twenty-six normal subjects, including 17 women,
3 men, 3 girls, and 3 boys, participated in the
study. Each volunteer was given an oral dose of
liquid containing 8 microcuries of I 131 as sodium
iodide, then measured for whole body and thyroid
content of I 131 within 1 hour. Additional measure-
ments were made on the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 7th,
10th, 14th, and 18th days following the ingestion.
This study showed that approximately 20 percent
of the ingested I 131 was taken up by the thyroid
gland, and the remaining 80 percent excreted by
the kidneys by the urine. This research was sup-
ported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
(Previously described in #19 on the original list of
48 experiments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Lushbaugh, C.C., D.B. Hale, and C.R. Richmond.
“Clinical Applications of Whole Body Scintillometry.
IV. Turnover Rate of Protein-Bound Iodide.” Bio-
logical and Medical Research Group of the Health
Division Semiannual Report January-June 1960.
Los Alamos: Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory,
LAMS-2455, 1960, pp. 364-371. □
LANL-10. Absorption and Uptake of fodine-131
and Sodium-24 in Humans
In 1960, an experiment was conducted at Los
Alamos Scientific Laboratory to determine the
feasibility of in vivo measurements to study the
absorption of radionuclides through the skin. Liq-
uid solutions of sodium-24 (10 microcuries) or
254
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Ex p eriments — Los Alamos National Laboratory
iodine-131 (51 microcuries) were placed on the
palms of two volunteer subjects employed at the
Laboratory. After allowing absorption to occur,
the palms were washed and the subjects were
counted periodically in the Laboratory’s whole
body counter to determine the fraction of either
radionuclide absorbed through the skin.
In a second experiment, two volunteer subjects
ingested 0.18 microcurie of sodium-24 or 0.14
microcurie of iodine-131 to determine the gastro-
intestinal absorption and whole body retention of
these radionuclides. This research was sup-
ported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
(Previously described in #27 on the original list of
48 experiments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Van Dilla, M.A. , C.R. Richmond, and J.E. Furch-
ner. “Cutaneous Absorption by Human Subjects, I.
Studies with Sodium-24 and Iodine-131.” Biologi-
cal and Medical Research Group of the Health
Division Semiannual Report July-December 1960.
Los Alamos: Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory,
LAMS-2526, 1961, pp. 164-171. □
In 1960, a study was conducted at Los Alamos
Scientific National Laboratory on the use of an
iodine-131 (I 131 ) labeled blood dye in determining
liver function. Ten normal subjects and 1 8 per-
sons suffering from inflammatory hepatic disease
were injected intravenously with 10 microcuries
of l 131 -labeled dye (rose bengal). The time-
activity curves for retention of I 131 in the blood
stream were determined using the Los Alamos
arm counter. The blood retention curve was
found to be a better measurement of function
than the clearance rate of labeled rose bengal
dye measured in urine. This research was sup-
ported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
(Previously described in #28 on the original list of
48 experiments released by DOE in June 1 994)
References
Lushbaugh, C.C., D.B. Hale, and R. McGill. ‘The
Use of the Arm Counter to Determine the Degree
of Hepatic Function. " Biological and Medical Re-
search Group of the Health Division, Semiannual
Report Januarv-June 1960. Los Alamos: Los
Alamos Scientific Laboratory, LAMS-2455, 1960,
pp. 223-229. □
LANL-12. Gastrointestinal Passage of Radio-
active Particles
In the early 1960s, Los Alamos Scientific Labora-
tory conducted studies on the passage of radioac-
tive particles through the human gastrointestinal
tract. These studies addressed the issue of reentry
and destruction of nuclear-powered space vehi-
cles in the earth’s atmosphere and subsequent
ingestion of the resulting particles by humans.
Fifty-seven normal adults participated. Each swal-
lowed a gelatin capsule containing three radioac-
tive particles. One particle was ceramic, about 1 50
microns in diameter, and contained approximately
150 picocuries of manganese-54. The other two
particles were uranium carbide, about 175 microns
in diameter, and contained an unspecified amount
of uranium-235 activity.
The total calculated radiation dose delivered to
the gastrointestinal tract in these studies was
extremely low — well below the maximum per-
missible level for these materials. Several sub-
jects repeated the ingestion at different times of
day to estimate the time-of-day variable in the
study. One subject repeated the test 1 0 different
times to estimate the variation within a single
individual. The studies showed that particle den-
sity did not influence passage rate and that there
was no significant holdup of particles in the di-
gestive system. Transit times corresponded
more to bowel movement habits than a normal
distribution. This work was supported by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission. (This experiment
was referenced in the Markey report.)
References
Some Biological Aspects of Radioactive
Microspheres. Los Alamos: Biological and Medi-
cal Research Group, Los Alamos Scientific Labo-
ratory, LA-3365-MS, June 20, 1 965. □
A study was conducted at Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratory in early 1961 on the metabolism of
255
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
zinc-65 (Zn 65 ) in human cancer patients with
chronic leukemia. This experiment involved a
single subject. A 15-year-old female patient with
chronic myelogenous leukemia was given a oral
dose of 0.6 microcurie of zinc-65 (Zn 65 ) as zinc
chloride 137 days prior to death. One hour after
administration and on days 1, 2, 3 ,20, and 137
the subject was studied for whole body Zn 65 in
the Los Alamos human counter. Also, tissue
samples were removed at autopsy and sampled
for zinc-65. The findings of this study showed
that Zn 65 was retained less tenaciously by the
leukemia patient than by normal subjects. This
work was supported by the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission. (Previously described in #32 on the
original list of 48 experiments released by DOE in
June 1994)
References
Richmond, C.R., J.E. Furchner, and G.A. Trafton.
“Long Term Retention of Zinc-65 by Man.” Biologi-
cal and Medical Research Group of the Health
Division Semiannual Report July-December 1960.
Los Alamos: Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory,
LAMS-2526, 1961, pp. 15-20.
Furchner, J.E., C.R. Richmond, and G.A.
Trafton. “Metabolism of Zinc-65 in Humans.” Bio-
logical and Medical Research Group of the
Health Division Annual Report July 1961-July
1962. Los Alamos: Los Alamos Scientific Labora-
tory, LAMS-2780, 1962, pp. 66-77.
Furchner, J.E. and C.R. Richmond. “Effect of
Dietary Zinc on the Absorption of Orally Adminis-
tered Zn 65 .” Health Physics. Vol. 8, 1 962, pp.
35—40.
Richmond, C.R., J.E. Furchner, G.A. Trafton,
and W.H. Langham. “Comparative Metabolism of
Radionuclides in Mammals-I: Uptake and Reten-
tion of Orally Administered Zn 65 by Four Mamma-
lian Species.” Health Physics. Vol. 8, 1 962, pp.
481-489.
Richmond, C.R., C.C. Lushbaugh, M.W. Rowe,
and M.A. Van Dilla. “Metabolism of Zinc-65 in a
Terminal Leukemia Case.” Biological and Medi-
cal Research Group of the Health Division Semi-
annual Report January-June 1961. Los Alamos:
Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, LAMS-2627,
1960, pp. 263-269. □
LANL-14. Iodine-131 Used to Determine Thy-
roid Uptake Measurement Tech-
niques
In 1961, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory con-
ducted studies intended to improve the accuracy
of whole body counting techniques for determining
thyroid uptakes. Previous experience had shown
that body mass influenced overall absorption and
affected the accuracy of thyroid uptake measure-
ments. An unspecified number of subjects re-
ceived oral administration of 8 microcuries of
iodine-131. A “mock iodine” mixture of barium-133
and cesium-134 equal to 2.48 microcuries was
also administered to establish a control standard.
The results of these studies were used to develop
standards in establishing normal human absorp-
tion values for men, women, and children of vari-
ous ages. (Previously described in #45 on the orig-
inal list of 48 experiments released by DOE in
June 1994)
References
Lushbaugh, C.C. “Progress in Refinement of the
Whole Body Counting Technique for Determining
Thyroid Uptake.” Biological and Medical Research
Group of the Health Division Semiannual Report
January-June 1961. Los Alamos: Los Alamos
Scientific Laboratory, LAMS-2627, 1 961 ,
pp. 291-297. □
LANL-15. Uptake and Retention of Zinc-65
During 1961 and 1962, a study was conducted at
Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, NM on the up-
take and retention of radioactive materials by
mammals. Three males and one female between
the ages of 31 and 48 received a single oral dose
of 0.6 to 1 .0 microcurie as zinc chloride in water.
The subjects were evaluated for whole body dis-
tribution and retention of Zn 65 with time. These
measurements were made in the Los Alamos
whole body center. Urine and feces were also
obtained and analyzed for Zn 65 . Measurements
continued out to 41 6 to 664 days after adminis-
tering Zn 65 . These data were used to determine
the retention and excretion of Zn 65 in men and
women for comparison with other animal spe-
cies. This study was supported by the U.S.
256
C hapte r 3. Human Rad iation Ex periment s — Lo s Alamos Nationa l Laborato ry
Atomic Energy Commission. (Previously de-
scribed in #32 on the original list of 48 experi-
ments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Richmond, C.R., J.E. Furchner, G.A. Trafton,
and W.H. Langham. “Comparative Metabolism of
Radionuclides in Mammals — I: Uptake and Re-
tention of Orally Administered Zn 65 by Four Mam-
malian Species.” Health Physics. Vol. 8, 1962,
pp. 481-489. □
LANL-16. Iron-59 Absorption in Normal Hu-
man Subjects
From mid-1961 to mid-1962, a study was con-
ducted at the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory
on the absorption of iron by normal human sub-
jects. The objective of the study was to deter-
mine whether the ferrous or ferric form was more
readily absorbed. A group of volunteers com-
posed of 20 normal men and 30 normal women
was included in the study. The subjects were di-
vided randomly into two subgroups. Each subject
received 0.27 microcurie of iron orally. Some re-
ceived the iron in the form of ferrous citrate la-
beled with iron-59 (Fe 59 ). The others received the
iron in the form of ferric chloride labeled with
Fe 59 . A whole body count was performed immedi-
ately after ingestion and again 7 days later. At the
time of the second body count, blood samples
were withdrawn and characterized. No difference
was found in human uptake between the ferrous
and ferric forms of iron. This study was sup-
ported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
(Previously described in #40 on the original list of
48 experiments released by DOE in June 1994)
Lushbaugh, C.C. and D.B. Hale. “Clinical Appli-
cations of Whole body Scintillometry I. Retention
of Orally Administered Iron.” Biological and Medi-
cal Research Group of the Health Division Semi-
annual Report July-December 1959. Los
Alamos: Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory,
LAMS-2445, 1960, pp. 337-347. □
LANL-17. Cutaneous Absorption of
Strontium-85
From 1961 to 1962, Los Alamos Scientific Labo-
ratory conducted studies on the absorption of
strontium-85 (Sr 85 ) through human skin. Radioac-
tive strontium chloride was applied in a gauze
patch to the forearm of two subjects and held in
place with adhesive tape. The amount of Sr 85
administered was about 70 microcuries. After 2
days, one subject had absorbed 0.2 percent and
the other had absorbed 0.6 percent. The study
showed that absorption through the skin oc-
curred, but at very low levels. This work was sup-
ported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
(Previously described in #44 on the original list of
48 experiments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Van Dilla, M.A., C.R. Richmond, J.E. Furchner,
and M.W. Rowe. “Cutaneous Absorption of Radio-
nuclides by Human Subjects. II. Strontium-85.”
Biological and Medical Research Group of the
Health Division Annual Report July 1961-June
1962. Los Alamos: Los Alamos Scientific Labora-
tory, LAMS-2780, 1962, pp. 154-157. □
LANL-18. Retention of Strontium-85
From 1961 to 1962, Los Alamos Scientific Labo-
ratory conducted studies on the whole body re-
tention of strontium-85 (Sr 85 ) in humans. Three
male laboratory employees ingested 1 .07
microcuries of Sr 85 in 100 milliliters of tap water.
The studies showed that Sr 85 , with its 65-day
half-life, is suitable for studying short-term reten-
tion of fallout but not appropriate for long-term
retention studies. This work was supported by
the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. (Previously
described in #44 on the original list of 48 experi-
ments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Furchner, J.E., M.A. Van Dilla, M.W. Rowe, and
C.R. Richmond. “Retention of Strontium-85 by
Man.” Biological and Medical Research Group of
the Health Division Annual Report July 1961-June
1962. Los Alamos: Los Alamos Scientific Labora-
tory, LAMS-2780, 1962, pp. 43-49. □
LANL-19. Studies On the Retention of
iodine-131 in Humans
In 1961 to 1962, the Los Alamos Scientific Labo-
ratory conducted studies on the retention of
257
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap t o t he Story and the Re c ords
radioiodinated paratoluidine polyvinylpyrrolidone,
also known as PVP-I 131 . The purpose of the study
was to determine whether PVP-I 131 could be used
to detect the presence of vascular leaks into the
gastrointestinal or renal excretory tracts. Eight
adults were injected intravenously with 0.7 micro-
curie of PVP-I 131 . Four of the subjects had medi-
cal conditions that included known internal
bleeding. The study showed that the bleeding
subjects lost the iodine more rapidly than the
nonbleeding subjects — in one case, almost twice
as fast — indicating that PVP-I 131 was an effective
detector of internal bleeding.
In a related study, one of these subjects drank a
water solution containing 0.06 microcurie of
PVP-I 131 to determine retention in the thyroid
gland. The study showed little retention, indicating
that PVP-I 131 is not readily absorbable. This work
was supported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Com-
mission. (Previously described in #45 on the origi-
nal list of 48 experiments released by DOE in June
1994)
References
Lushbaugh, C.C. and D.B. Hale. “Clinical Appli-
cations of Whole body Counting: Retention of
Raovin Iodine-131 as a Measure of Serum or
Blood Loss.” Biological and Medical Research
Group of the Health Division Annual Report July
1961-June 1962. Los Alamos: Los Alamos Sci-
entific Laboratory, LAMS-2780, 1962, pp.
188-193. □
LANL-20. Thyroid Function Studies Using
Sodium iodide-131
From 1961 to 1962, Los Alamos Scientific Labo-
ratory conducted studies on human thyroid func-
tion using iodine-131 (I 131 ) administered as so-
dium iodide. At least two adult females received
0.5 microcurie by oral administration. Tests were
repeated several times in combination with vari-
ous drugs and uptakes were measured and com-
pared. These studies showed which drug thera-
pies were most effective in treating thyroid disor-
ders. This work was supported by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission. (Previously de-
scribed in #45 on the original list of 48 experi-
ments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Lushbaugh, C.C. and D.B. Hale. “Clinical Appli-
cations of Whole body Counting: Determination
of Thyroidal Activity from Sodium Iodine-131 Re-
tention Measurements with Humco II.” Biological
and Medical Research Group of the Health Divi-
sion Annual Report July 1961-June 1962. Los
Alamos: Los Alamos National Laboratory,
LAMS-2780, 1962, pp. 181-187. □
LANL-21. Metabolism of Zinc-65 in Humans
A study of the metabolism of zinc-65 was con-
ducted at Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory in 1962
to evaluate the gastrointestinal absorption, distri-
bution in the body, retention time, and excretion
rates. The study involved four laboratory employ-
ees — three male and one female — between 29
and 48 years of age. The subjects were given an
oral dose of 0.6 to 1 .0 microcurie of Zn 65 in the
form zinc chloride, in water and were studied by
whole body counting. Urinary and fecal samples
were also obtained and counted to measure the
excretion rates of Zn 65 from the subjects. Their
study was supported by the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission. (Previously described in #18 on the
original list of 48 experiments released by DOE in
June 1994)
References
Richmond, C.R., J.E. Furchner, G.A. Trafton,
and W.H. Langham. “Comparative Metabolism of
Radionuclides in Mammals: Uptake and Reten-
tion of Orally Administered Zn 65 by Four Mamma-
lian Species.” Health Physics. Vol. 8, 1962, pp.
481-489. □
LANL-22. Cesium-132 Metabolism in Humans
From 1962 to 1963, a study was conducted at
Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory to determine
the retention and excretion of cesium-132 (Cs 132 )
in humans. The subjects were three male and
one female normal, young adults in good health.
These subjects were injected intravenously with
0.65 microcurie of Cs 132 as cesium chloride.
Three of the subjects were counted approxi-
mately 30 times over a 45-day period. Whole
body retention of Cs 132 was determined by mea-
surements of the subjects in the Laboratory’s
258
C hapter 3. Human Radiation Exp e riments — Oak Ridge Sites
whole body counters. This research was sup-
ported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
(Previously described in #25 on the original list of
48 experiments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Richmond, C.R., J.E. London, and J.E. Furchner.
“Retention of Intravenously Administered
Cesium-1 32 by Man.” Biological and Medical Re-
search Group of the Health Division Annual Re-
port July 1962-June 1963. Los Alamos: Los
Alamos Scientific Laboratory, LAMS-3034, 1963,
pp. 21-33. □
LANL-23. Thyroid Studies Using Small
Amounts of Radioactive Iodine
In about 1963, the Los Alamos Scientific Labora-
tory conducted studies on thyroid metabolism,
using very small amounts of iodine-125 (I 125 ) and
iodine-131 (I 131 ). The purpose was to determine
the retention of iodine in the thyroid as a function
of time, with a particular interest in radioiodine
metabolism in children. Nineteen normal male
and female subjects ranging in age from 4 to 46
drank approximately 10 nanocuries each of I 125
and I 131 mixed together in water. Subsequent
measurements showed that there was no differ-
ence in radioiodine metabolism between children
and adults. This work was supported by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission. (Previously de-
scribed in #45 on the original list of 48 experi-
ments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Van Dilla, M.A. and M.J. Fulwyler. ‘Thyroid Metab-
olism in Children and Adults Using Very Small
(Nanocurie) Doses of Iodine-125 and Iodine-131.”
Health Physics. Vol. 9, 1963, pp. 1,325-1,331.
Van Dilla, M.A. and M.J. Fulwyler. “Radioiodine
Metabolism in Children and Adults After the In-
gestion of Very Small Doses.” Science. Vol. 144,
No. 3614, April 1964, pp.178-179. □
Oak Ridge Sites
OR-1. Gallium-72 for Diagnosis and Therapy
at Oak Ridge
From 1949 to 1951, the Oak Ridge Institute of
Nuclear Studies conducted studies on the thera-
peutic use of gallium-72 (Ga 72 ). More than 50
patients with various kinds of bone cancer partici-
pated. The patients were divided into two groups:
one in which a therapeutic effect was attempted,
and another in which only gallium uptake and
localization were studied with no therapeutic ef-
fect attempted. All patients, except one, had fatal
cancers that were not amenable to surgery or
radiotherapy. The radiogallium was administered
intravenously in doses ranging from 10 to 100
millicuries. Most patients tolerated two to four
injections of less than 70 millicuries. Further
doses or higher level doses caused anorexia,
nausea, vomiting, and severe mental depression,
with later appearance of skin reactions, diarrhea,
and serious bone marrow depression. These
studies showed that Ga 72 was not suitable as a
therapy or tracer because of its toxicity in hu-
mans. As a result, subsequent studies focused
on other isotopes, such as Ga 67 or gallium-68
(Ga 68 ). This work was supported by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Brucer, G. M., G.A. Andrews, and H.D. Bruner.
“A Study of Gallium.” Radiology. Vol. 61, No. 4,
1954, pp. 534-613.
"Gallium.” Medical Division Annual Report June
1951. Oak Ridge: Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear
Studies, pp. 16-20. Oak Ridge Institute of Nu-
clear Studies, ORAU Medical Science Division,
Vance Road Facility, Room 202A, ORAU-30022.
Nelson, B., R.L. Hayes, C.L. Edwards, R.M.
Kniseley, and G.A. Andrews. “Distribution of Gal-
lium in Human Tissues After Intravenous
Administration.” Journal of Nuclear Medicine. Vol.
13, 1972, pp. 92-100. □
OR-2. Colloidal Goid~198 Studies at Oak
Ridge
Colloidal gold-1 98 was studied in the 1950s at
Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies for
259
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
potential diagnostic and therapeutic applications
in nuclear medicine. Gold-198 (Au 198 ) was used
intravenously in an experiment involving terminal
cancer patients. Four males and three females
with different types of cancer were included in
this study between 1949 and 1953. Au 198 was
administered in various amounts over the course
of the patient’s disease in the hope of demon-
strating a therapeutic effect. In addition, activities
of 2.3 to 33 millicuries were administered just
prior to death to enhance the isotope concentra-
tions in tissues and to study the biodistribution at
time of autopsy. Colloidal Au 198 was also em-
ployed in intracavitary infusions to study and treat
patients with tumors of the chest or abdomen.
These studies were supported by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission. (Previously de-
scribed in #12 on the original list of 48 experi-
ments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Root, S.W., G.A. Andrews, R.M. Kniseley, and
M.P. Tyor. “The Distribution and Radiation Ef-
fects of Intravenously Administered Colloidal
Au 198 in Man.” Cancer. Vol. 7, No. 5, September
1954, pp. 856-866.
Kniseley, R.M. and G.A. Andrews. “Pathological
Changes Following Intracavitary Therapy with
Colloidal Au 198 .” Cancer. Vol 6., No. 2, March
1953, pp. 303-312. □
OR-3. Use of Serum Albumin Labeled With
lodine-131
In the early 1950s, the Oak Ridge Institute for
Nuclear Studies conducted experiments on the
transfer of labeled serum albumin between the
peritoneal cavity (within the abdominal cavity)
and the blood vessels. Eleven women hospital-
ized for ascites (accumulation of fluid in the
peritoneal cavity) were the subjects of this study;
9 had abdominal carcinomatosis and 2 had cir-
rhosis of the liver. These patients were injected
either intraperitoneally or intravenously with hu-
man serum albumin labeled with 200 to 300
microcuries of iodine-131 (I 131 ). Samples of as-
citic fluid and blood were analyzed for l 131 -labeled
human serum albumin content. The results
showed complete equilibrium of the injected
tagged albumin between compartments, and that
a similar mechanism was involved in the accu-
mulation of ascitic fluid in the two diseases stud-
ied. This work was supported by the U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission.
References
Tyor, M.P. “Human Serum Albumin Tagged with
Iodine-131 in Patients With Ascites Caused by
Abdominal Carcinomatosis and Portal Cirrhosis:
The Rates of Interchange Between the Vascular
Compartment and Peritoneal Cavity.” Journal of
Laboratory and Clinical Medicine. Vol. 44, No. 1 ,
July 1954, pp. 110-117. □
OR-4. Iodine-131 in the Treatment of
Malignant Melanoma
An experiment conducted at the Oak Ridge In-
stitute of Nuclear Studies in 1951 investigated
the use of iodine-131 (I 131 ) in the treatment of
malignant melanoma. A secondary objective was
to determine the distribution of I 131 in patients with
this type of tumor both in the presence and in the
absence of functioning thyroid tissue. Two exper-
imental subjects were studied. The first subject
was a 37-year-old man in the terminal stages of
metastatic malignant melanoma of the liver. He
received 100 microcuries of I 131 orally. Three
days later, the subject was given 57.6 millicuries
of I 131 orally. Tissue samples were obtained dur-
ing the autopsy, 6 days after ingestion of the I 131
The second subject was a 43-year-old woman
with malignant melanoma of the arms and legs.
This patient received three oral doses of I 131 (305
millicuries, 69.7 millicuries, and 69.7 millicuries).
Tissues samples were obtained by biopsy after
each dose. I 131 failed to localize the tumor and
was judged ineffective for therapy. This work was
supported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commis-
sion.
References
Andrews, G. A. and M. Brucer. “Radioactive Iodine
in Malignant Melanoma.” Medical Division Quar-
terly Report October 1 -December 31, 1953. Oak
Ridge: Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies,
pp. 12-16. Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies,
ORAU Medical Science Division, Vance Road Fa-
cility, Room 202A, ORAU-30022. □
260
C hapter 3. Human Ra diati on Experime nts — O ak Ridge Sites
OR-5. Use of Radioiodine in Surgical
Removal of Thyroid Cancers
Between 1950 and 1974, 117 patients admitted
to the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies,
Oak Ridge Associated Universities, with cancer
of the thyroid received at least one dose of thera-
peutic iodine-1 31 (I 131 ) as part of their therapy in
addition to surgery. The project was started be-
fore the formation of the ORAU/ORNL Commit-
tee on Human Studies in 1967. However, prior to
1967, experimental protocols were reviewed by
all members of the clinical staff, with consensus
required for approval. The project was terminated
in October 1974 and ORAU personnel began
compiling data and evaluating the clinical course
of the patients. Eighty-seven of these patients
were still alive at that time. This work was sup-
ported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
References
"Use of Radioiodine in Surgical Removal of Thy-
roid Cancers.” Oak Ridge Associated Universities,
Medical Division, Committee on Human Studies
File (Project No. 5). 1973. Oak Ridge Institute for
Science and Education. Medical Sciences Divi-
sion. ORAU/ORNL Committee. Vance Road Facil-
ity, Room 202A, ORAU-30016, File 1. □
OR-6, Comparison of the Metabolism of
Rubidium-86 and Potassium-42
In 1953, four patients at Oak Ridge Institute for
Nuclear Studies with leukemia and carcinoma
participated in tracer experiments to determine
whether rubidium-86 (Rb 86 ) could be used as an
analog for potassium-42 (K 42 ) in studying biologi-
cal systems. Simultaneous intravenous injections
of K 42 and Rb 86 were administered to the experi-
mental subjects. Multiple samples of plasma, red
cells, and urine were obtained and analyzed from
each patient. The researchers concluded that
Rb 86 was a satisfactory substitute for K 42 in bio-
logical studies. This work was funded by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission.
References
"Potassium-42 and Rubidium-86 Studies.” Medical
Division Quarterly Report October 1-December
31, 1953. Oak Ridge: Oak Ridge Institute of Nu-
clear Studies, pp. 10-11. Oak Ridge Institute of
Nuclear Studies, ORAU Medical Science Division,
Vance Road Facility, Room 202A, QRAU-30022.
Tyor, M. P. and J.S. Eldridge. “A Comparison of
the Metabolism of Rb 86 and K 42 Following Simul-
taneous Injection into Man. "Abstract of paper
presented to American Society for Clinical Inves-
tigation, Atlantic City, April 1954. □
OR-7. Metabolism Studies Using Calcium-47
The metabolism of calcium in humans was
studied at the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear
Studies in 1959. Eleven patients with various dis-
eases, including bone lesions and breast cancer,
were given calcium-47 (Ca 47 ). Analyses for Ca 47
were then conducted on blood, urine, feces, and
saliva. Whole body retention of Ca 47 was also
determined. Two patients were administered 70
microcuries intravenously and two patients re-
ceived oral dosages of 138 and 104 microcuries,
respectively. One patient received both an intra-
venous and an oral dose. Comparisons were
made between intravenous and oral routes of
administration. This research was funded by the
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Monthly Highlight Report of the Oak Ridge Insti-
tute of Nuclear Studies, Medical Division. June
1960. NARA Atlanta Archives, RG 326-68A1096,
OR Research Division, Organization and Man-
agement-5, Box 400, Folder Organization and
Management-8, Reports — ORINS. O
OR-8. Whole Body Gamma Radiation Ther-
apy of Patients With Hematologic
Disorders
From 1956 to 1973, the Oak Ridge Institute for
Nuclear Studies/Oak Ridge Associated Universi-
ties Medical Division conducted studies on the
efficacy of total body irradiation (TBI) for the treat-
ment of hematologic disorders, particularly leuke-
mia, polycythemia rubra vera, and lymphoma. The
purposes were to develop better irradiation meth-
ods for therapy, improve methods for assessing
and treating accidental gamma and neutron radia-
tion, compile and evaluate related data, and de-
vise new and more precise endpoints that define
human radiation dose-response.
261
Human Rad iation E xp erim ents: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and th e Records
The 194 male and female patients, all diagnosed
with some kind of hematologic malignancy,
ranged in age from 12 to 86 years. They were
exposed to totals of 50 to 250 roentgens (R) per
treatment series. However, in 1970, one patient
was exposed to 500 R in conjunction with an at-
tempted bone marrow graft. The external gamma
radiation sources were either cobalt-60 (Co 60 ) or
cesium-137 (Cs 137 ) used in three types of facili-
ties: a medium-exposure-rate total body irradiator
(METBI) providing 1.5 R/min and two low-
exposure-rate total body irradiators (LETBIs) pro-
viding 1.5 R/hrand 0.8 R/hr.
The therapeutic total body irradiation project was
discontinued after 194 patients received expo-
sures to 250 R in METBI or LETBI. However,
there was a higher frequency of remissions at
150 R compared to 250 R, which occurred be-
cause of excessive marrow suppression at the
higher exposure rates. Survival data indicated
that TBI patients survived about as long as, but
not significantly longer than, patients treated by
other methods. The program, which was discon-
tinued in 1974, was funded by the U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission. (TBI was referenced in the
Markey report.)
References
Monthly Highlight Report of the Oak Ridge Insti-
tute of Nuclear Studies, January 1960-Medical
Division. February 3, 1 960, p. 2.
Edwards, C.L., C.C. Lushbaugh, H. Vodopick,
F.A. Goswitz, B. Nelson, R.M. Kniseley, and G.A.
Andrews. “Studies of Total-Body Irradiation in
Patients with Hematological Disorders.” Applica-
tion for Use of Humans As Experimental Sub-
jects, Medical Division, Oak Ridge Associated
Universities, Committee on Human Studies and
Related Documentation (Project No. 10). 1969.
Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education.
Medical Sciences Division. ORAU/ORNL Com-
mittee. Vance Road Facility, Room 202A,
ORAU-30016, File 1.
"Radiation Effects and Related Topics: Clinical
Total-Body Irradiation.” 1970 Research Report.
Oak Ridge: Medical Division, Oak Ridge Associ-
ated Universities, ORAU-113, p. 4.
"Clinical Observations: Therapeutic Total-Body
Irradiation.” 1972 Research Report. Oak Ridge:
Medical Division, Oak Ridge Associated Universi-
ties, ORAU-122, pp. 6-14.
"Radiation Effects and Related Topics.” 1973
Research Report. Oak Ridge: Medical Division,
Oak Ridge Associated Universities, ORAU-123,
pp. 4-12.
Andrews, G.A., F.V. Comas, C.L. Edwards, R.M.
Kniseley, C.C. Lushbaugh, and H. Vodopick.
“Hematologic and Therapeutic Effect of TBI in
Patients with Malignant Lymphoma, Chronic
Lymphocytic and Granulocyte Leukemias, and
Polycythemia Vera.” Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission, ORAU-112, 1970.
Andrews, G.A., C.C. Lushbaugh, R.M. Kniseley,
D. White, and B.l. Friedman. “Hematological Ef-
fects of Whole body Irradiation in the Human Be-
ing.” in IAEA Panel: Effects of Ionizing Radiation
on the Hematopoietic Tissue. Vienna: Interna-
tional Atomic Energy Agency, 1970, pp. 75-83.
Andrews, G.A., R.M. Kniseley, H. Vodopick, PE.
Bergner, and C.C. Lushbaugh. “Hematologic Re-
sponses to Total-Body Irradiation.” in Radioisotope
in Pharmakokinetick und Klinischer Biochemie,
edited by G. Hoffman and H.A. Ladner, pp.
517-27. Stuttgart: Nuklear Medizin, 1966. □
OR-9. Studies Using Radioactive Vitamin B 12
This research, conducted in the early 1960s,
was a collaborative effort between the Oak Ridge
Institute of Nuclear Studies, the Long Island Jew-
ish Hospital (Jamaica, NY), South Nassau Com-
munities Hospital (Oceanside, NY), and Brook-
haven National Laboratory. A series of experi-
ments was conducted to study the plasma clear-
ance of vitamin B 12 labeled with cobalt-57 (Co 57 ).
The studies sought to determine why the serum
and plasma levels of vitamin B 12 were elevated in
patients with chronic myelocytic leukemia. In one
study, three patients in remission were intrave-
nously administered 0.13 microcurie of vitamin
B 12 labeled with cobalt-57. The procedure was
repeated twice in the same patients, after admin-
istration of loading doses of stable vitamin B 12 .
In another study, 10 patients with various de-
grees of chronic myelocytic leukemia and 5
healthy individuals each received 3 or more intra-
venous injections of Co 57 labeled B 12 . This
262
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Exp e riment s — Oak Ridge Sites
research was supported by the U.S. Atomic En-
ergy Commission and by a grant from the Na-
tional Cancer Institute.
References
Meyer L.M., L.M. Schiffer, D.A. White, and E.P.
Cronkite. “The Plasma Disappearance of Radio-
active Cyanocobalamin: Effect of Prior Adminis-
tration of Vitamin B 12 Analogues.” British Journal
of Hematology. Vol. 11, No. 3, May 1965, pp.
370-379.
Monthly Highlight Report of the Oak Ridge Institute
of Nuclear Studies, Medical Division. December
1962. NARA Atlanta Archives, RG 326-68A1096,
OR Research Division, Organization and Man-
agement-5, Box 400, Folder Organization and
Management-8, Reports — ORINS. □
OR-10. Iodine-1 31 -Labeled L-Thyroxine
Turnover by Whole Body Counting
During 1966 and 1967, a study was conducted
by the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Stud-
ies/Oak Ridge Associated Universities to com-
pare the turnover of L-thyroxine (thyroxine is the
active iodine compound existing normally in the
thyroid gland) in subjects with hyperthyroidism,
hypothyroidism, and normal thyroid functions.
Ten patients with abnormal L-thyroxine metabo-
lism were compared against a control group of
five normal subjects. All subjects received 20 to
40 microcuries of iodine-131 (l 131 )-labeled L-thy-
roxine intravenously. Body counting was con-
ducted twice on the first day after the l 131 -labeled
L-thyroxine was administered and daily thereaf-
ter. Daily thyroid counts were made on the sub-
jects by standard methods. In addition, blood
samples were obtained from five patients to com-
pare blood turnover rates to whole body counts.
This study showed that whole body counting pro-
vided quantitative information on the turnover of
L-thyroxine. This work was funded by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Bird, E. D. and W.D. Gibbs. “L-thyroxine Turn-
over by Whole body Counting in Patients Receiv-
ing Exogenous Thyroid Hormone.” 1968 Re-
search Report. Oak Ridge: Medical Sciences
Division, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, pp.
223-227. Oak Ridge Institute for Science and
Education, ORAU Medical Sciences Division,
ORAU-30002, Part 3 of 6. □
OR-11. Tumor Scanning with Gallium-67
From 1969 through 1977, Oak Ridge Associ-
ated Universities conducted studies on the use of
gallium-67 (Ga 67 ) as a tumor-scanning agent in
humans. Participating were 357 male and female
patients ranging in age from 6 to 83 years. All
had known, viable bone or soft tissue tumors as-
sociated with a wide variety of cancers. All
patients received at least one intravenous injec-
tion of 70 microcuries of Ga 67 per kilogram of
body weight up to a total dose of 6 millicuries.
Thirty-four of these patients received more than
one injection. Several received a series of injec-
tions to study the therapeutic effect and to look
for recurrence of disease.
In a related study, four patients were administered
Ga 67 by injection into the lymphatic structure of the
feet. These studies showed that gallium does not
collect equally in all types of tumors. Rather, it col-
lects in tumors of specific cellular types. The lym-
phatic injections showed no advantage to this ap-
proach, even in identifying tumors along the lym-
phatic vessels. In May 1976, the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration approved Ga 67 citrate for gen-
eral diagnostic use. This work was supported by
the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Edwards, C. L., R.L. Hayes, N. Tehranian, R.
Kniseley, F. Goswitz, R. Tanida, and H. Vodopick.
“Tumor Scanning with Gallium-67.” Application for
Use of Humans As Experimental Subjects, Medi-
cal Division, Oak Ridge Associated Universities,
Committee on Human Studies and Related Docu-
mentation (Project No. 9). 1969. Oak Ridge Insti-
tute for Science and Education. Medical Sciences
Division. ORAU/ORNL Committee. Vance Road
Facility, Room 202A, ORAU-30016, File 1.
"Tumor Scanning with Gallium-67.” 1970 Re-
search Report. Oak Ridge: Medical Sciences
Division, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, pp.
100-105. Oak Ridge Institute for Science and
Education, ORAU Medical Sciences Division,
ORAU-30002, Part 3 of 6.
263
Human R a di ation Ex periments: The DOE R oadmap to the S tory and the Reco rds
Nelson, B., R.L. Hayes, C.L. Edwards, R.M.
Kniseley, and G.A. Andrews. “Distribution of Gal-
lium in Human Tissues After Intravenous
Administration.” Journal of Nuclear Medicine. Vol.
13, 1972, pp. 92-100. □
OR-12. Therapeutic Allogenic Transplantation
of Human Bone Marrow
From 1970 to 1973, Oak Ridge Associated Uni-
versities conducted a study to evaluate the effec-
tiveness of combining high-dose total body irradia-
tion (TBI) with antilymphocyte-globulin as an im-
munosuppressive regimen to induce tolerance to a
foreign bone marrow graft in humans. Three pa-
tients were involved initially. Each was exposed to
500 roentgens (R), which corresponded to an av-
erage total body absorbed dose of approximately
370 rads. Subsequent bone marrow grafts were
successful in two patients. Failure of the graft in
the third patient was determined to have resulted
from an insufficient radiation dose. Accordingly,
researchers requested and received approval to
increase the exposure level to deliver an absorbed
dose of 800 rads at the rate of 40 R/min.
The original protocol limited patients to those with
acute leukemia. Researchers also requested and
received approval to extend the procedure to
patients with aplastic anemia. A fourth patient,
with acute leukemia, was treated in 1973. This
patient was exposed to a 694 R to the total body
irradiation, but developed an unexplained severe
graft-versus-host reaction that prevented a suc-
cessful marrow transplant.
The Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies con-
ducted a related study beginning in 1971 that
was designed to identify objective signs and dis-
tinguish early graft-versus-host reactions from
drug reactions, infections, and other complica-
tions related to or incidental to the marrow trans-
plant/TBI procedure. In this study, skin biopsies
were obtained from four patients or volunteers,
without further exposing them to radiation of any
kind. This work was supported by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission. (TBI was refer-
enced in the Markey report.)
References
"Allogenic Marrow Transplantation in Man.” 1971
Research Report. Oak Ridge: Medical Division,
Oak Ridge Associated Universities, ORAU-116,
pp. 65-70.
"Therapeutic Allogenic Bone-Marrow Transplanta-
tion.” 1973 Research Report. Oak Ridge: Medical
Division, Oak Ridge Associated Universities,
ORAU-123, pp. 39-43.
Gengozian, N., C. L. Edwards, H. Vodopick, and
K. Hubner. “Therapeutic Allogenic Transplanta-
tion of Human Bone Marrow.” Application for Use
of Humans As Experimental Subjects, Medical
Division, Oak Ridge Associated Universities,
Committee on Human Studies and Related Doc-
umentation (Project No. 13). 1970. Oak Ridge
Institute for Science and Education. Medical Sci-
ences Division. ORAU/ORNL Committee. Vance
Road Facility, Room 202A, ORAU-30016, File 1.
Nelson, B. and L. Edwards. “Histologic Changes
in the Skin Related to the Graft vs Host (GVH)
Reaction After Marrow Transplantation.” Applica-
tion for Use of Humans As Experimental Sub-
jects, Medical Division, Oak Ridge Associated
Universities, Committee on Human Studies and
Related Documentation (Project No. 15). 1970.
Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education.
Medical Sciences Division. ORAU/ORNL Com-
mittee. Vance Road Facility, Room 202A,
ORAU-30016, File 1.
Andrews. G.A. ‘The Therapeutic Use of Bone-
Marrow Transplantation.” in Proceedings of the
International Conference on Leukemia-Lym-
phoma, edited by C.J.D. Zarafonetis, pp. 423-432.
Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1968. □
OR-13. Scandium-Augmented Gallium
Localization in Tumors — Phase I
and Phase II Studies
From 1972 to 1973, Oak Ridge Associated Uni-
versities conducted a study to determine whether
intravenous administration of stable (nonradioac-
tive) scandium citrate along with radioactive gal-
lium increases the relative concentration of the
gallium in tumors. The study protocol proposed
administration of scandium in doses ranging from
0.005 to 1 .0 milligram per kilogram of body
264
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Experiments — Oak Ridge Sites
weight, followed by 100 microcuries of gallium-67
(Ga 67 ) to 21 patients with known malignancies.
The first patient to be treated experienced an
adverse reaction to the scandium citrate but
made a satisfactory recovery. Testing was sus-
pended pending further investigation. There is no
indication of further activity. This work was sup-
ported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Hayes, R.L., C.L. Edwards, and B.M. Nelson.
“Scandium-Augmented Gallium Localization in
Tumors — Phase I and Phase II Studies.” Applica-
tion for Use of Humans As Experimental Sub-
jects, Medical Division, Oak Ridge Associated
Universities, Committee on Human Studies and
Related Documentation (Project No. 18). 1971.
Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education.
Medical Sciences Division. ORAU/ORNL Com-
mittee. Vance Road Facility, Room 202A,
ORAU-30016, File 1.
Hayes, R.L. and C.L. Edwards. “The Effect of
Stable Scandium on Red Blood Cells and the
Retention and Excretion of Ga 67 in Humans.”
Southern Medical Journal. Vol. 66, 1973, pp.
1,339-1,340. □
OR-14. Clinical Testing of Strontium-85m as
a Bone Scanning Agent
From 1972 to 1975, Oak Ridge Associated Uni-
versities conducted a study of strontium-85m
(Sr 85m ) as a bone scanning agent. Patients with
known malignant tumors or suspected metastatic
disease of the bone were administered up to 30
microcuries of Sr 85m per kilogram of body weight
(approximately 2 microcuries per patient) by in-
travenous infusion. Results of the Sr 85m scans
were compared with subsequent scans using
strontium-85, fluorine-18 (F 18 ) or technetium-99m
(Te" m ). Four patients were involved in the study.
This work was supported by the U.S. Atomic En-
ergy Commission.
References
"Clinical Testing of Strontium-85m as a Bone
Scanning Agent,” Application for the Use of Hu-
mans as Experimental Subjects, Medical Divi-
sion, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Com-
mittee on Human Studies and Related Documen-
tation (Project No. 25). 1972. Oak Ridge Institute
for Science and Education, Medical Sciences
Division, ORAU/ORNL Committee, Vance Road
Facility, Room 202A, ORAU-30016, File 1. □
OR-15. Comparison of Indium-111 and
Bismuth-206 with Gallium-67 as
Tumor Scanning Agents
From 1972 to 1978, Oak Ridge Associated Uni-
versities conducted a study to determine the rela-
tive merits of indium-111 (In 111 ) and bismuth-206
(Bi 206 ) when compared to gallium-67 (Ga 67 ) as
tumor imaging agents. In actual application, the
study was limited to evaluating In 111 and Ga 67 . In
1973, six cancer patients received simultaneous
injections of In 111 (0.011 microcurie per kilogram
of body weight) and Ga 67 (0.045 microcurie/kg).
Three additional patients were studied during
1974. The study showed that Ga 67 was a better
tumor scanning agent than In 111 . After July 1 974,
no patients were scanned with In 111 at Oak
Ridge. This work was supported by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission.
References
i "Comparison of Indium-111 and Bismuth-206
with Gallium-67 as Tumor Scanning Agents.”
Application for Use of Humans As Experimental
Subjects, Medical Division, Oak Ridge Associ-
ated Universities, Committee on Human Studies
and Related Documentation (Project No. 22).
1972. Oak Ridge Institute for Science and
Education. Medical Sciences Division.
ORAU/ORNL Committee. Vance Road Facility,
Room 202A, ORAU-30016, File 1.
"Indium-111 and Ga 67 for Tumor Scanning.” 1973
Research Report. Oak Ridge: Medical Division,
Oak Ridge Associated Universities, ORAU-123,
pp. 77-82. □
OR-16. Use of an External Gadolinium-153
Source for Timing the Cardiac Cycle
From 1972 to 1975, Oak Ridge Associated Uni-
versities conducted a study to determine the ef-
fectiveness of gadolinium-153 (Gd 153 ) as a
noninvasive technique for evaluating specific
stages of the cardiac cycle, notably the left ven-
tricular ejection time. A fine beam of gamma
265
Human R adiati o n Experiments: The DOE Roa dmap to the Story and the Records
radiation from a Gd 153 source, which was placed
on the subject’s back, was directed through the
heart to a detector on the subject’s chest. At
least six patients were subjected to a radiation
exposure of approximately 0.2 roentgen over a 1-
inch-diameter area on their backs. The passage
of blood through the left ventricle was determined
by measuring the blockage of gamma rays emit-
ted by the Gd 153 . This work was supported by the
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Oder, C., A.C. Morris, L. Edwards, and J. Berger.
“Use of External Gadolinium-153 Source for Tim-
ing of Parts of Cardiac Cycle.” Application for the
Use of Humans as Experimental Subjects, Medical
Division, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Com-
mittee on Human Studies and Related Documen-
tation (Project No. 23). 1972. Oak Ridge Institute
for Science and Education, Medical Sciences Divi-
sion, ORAU/ORNL Committee, Vance Road Facil-
ity, Room 202A, ORAU-30016, File 1. O
OR-17. Dysprosium-157 as a Clinical imaging
Agent for Solid Tumors
From 1973 to 1977, Oak Ridge Associated Uni-
versities conducted a study to determine whether
dysprosium-157 (Dy 157 ) could be used effectively
as a tumor localizing agent in humans. Both tu-
mors and soft-tissue tumors were considered.
Thirty-four patients with known cancer were in-
cluded. This study was discontinued in 1977 after
the investigators found that Dy 157 did not provide
better images of solid tumors than the technetium-
99m (Te" m ) phosphate compounds did for bone
scans, nor was it better than gallium-67 (Ga 67 ) ci-
trate for soft tissue tumors. This work was sup-
ported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Edwards, C.L., R.L. Hayes, and J.K. Poggenburg.
“Dysprosium-157 as a Clinical Scanning Agent for
the Detection of Osseous and Nonosseous Tu-
mors,” Application for the Use of Humans as Ex-
perimental Subjects, Medical Division, Oak Ridge
Associated Universities, Committee on Human
Studies and Related Documentation (Project No.
35). 1973. Oak Ridge Institute for Science and
Education, Medical Sciences Division, ORAU/
ORNL Committee on Human Studies, Vance
Road Facility, Room 202, ORAU-30017, File 2. □
OR-18. Effect of Splenectomy and Total Body
Irradiation on Chronic Granulocytic
B: Leukemia BflHflflflBBBBHI
In 1974, Oak Ridge Associated Universities con-
ducted a study to determine the effect of sple-
nectomy (surgical removal of the spleen), with or
without total body irradiation (TBI), on the onset
of blast crisis and overall survival in leukemia
patients. The blast crisis occurs when a patient,
previously in remission, begins to produce large
quantities of immature white blood cells (called
“blast cells”). The blast crisis is usually a terminal
condition. The spleen becomes enlarged during
the blast crisis and causes the patient consider-
able discomfort. The researchers were studying
whether removal of the spleen, with or without
TBI, might postpone the onset of blast crisis. The
study protocol called for radiation exposure of
100 to 250 R, depending on the white cell count
of the patient. Only one patient was treated in the
study. The patient was not kept in remission after
the splenectomy and required subsequent sup-
pressive therapy. The study was canceled in Jan-
uary 1 975 and the patient was no longer followed
by ORAU. This work was supported by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission. (TBI was refer-
enced in the Markey report.)
References
Goswitz, F.A., C.L. Edwards, H. Vodopick, and G.
Littlefield. “Effect of Splenectomy and TBI on On-
set of Blast Crisis and Survival in Chronic
Granulocytic Leukemia.” Application for the Use of
Humans as Experimental Subjects, Medical Divi-
sion, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Commit-
tee on Human Studies and Related Documenta-
tion (Project No. 29). 1973. Oak Ridge Institute for
Science and Education, Medical Sciences Divi-
sion, ORAU/ORNL Committee, Vance Road Facil-
ity, Room 202A, ORAU-30016, File 1. □
266
Chapter 3. Human R a diati on Exp eriments — Oak Ridg e Sites
OR-19. Oinical Testing of a Line-Scanning
Proportional Counter Camera Using
Injected iodine-125 and Technetium-
99m
Diagnostic doses of iodine-125 and technetium-
99m (Tc 99m ) were administered to selected pa-
tients referred to Oak Ridge Associated Universi-
ties from the Oak Ridge Methodist Hospital for
thyroid evaluation. The quality of images ob-
tained with the two radioisotopes with the camera
was evaluated and compared. Although these
subjects were evaluated for preexisting disease,
certain aspects of this study were experimental,
and the objective was development of instrumen-
tation and techniques for evaluating human thy-
roids. An estimated 100 subjects were studied.
This study was conducted between August 27,
1975, and September 29, 1977. The protocol
was approved by the Oak Ridge Associated Uni-
versities/Oak Ridge National Laboratory Institu-
tional Review Board. (Previously described in
#33 on the original list of 48 experiments re-
leased by DOE in June 1994)
References
Andrews, G.A., W. Gibbs, C. Borkowski, K.
Hubner, and J. Harter. “Clinical Testing of a Line
Scanning Proportional Counter Camera.” Appli-
cation for Use of Humans As Experimental Sub-
jects, Medical Division, Oak Ridge Associated
Universities, Committee on Human Studies and
Related Documentation (Project No. 41). 1975.
Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education.
Medical Sciences Division. ORAU/ORNL Com-
mittee on Human Studies, Vance Road Facility,
Room 202A, ORAU-30017, File 2.
Brill, A.B. “Radioisotope Studies Utilizing a Low
Level Whole Body Counter and Clinical Applica-
tions of Activation Analysis.” ERDA Progress Re-
port. Nashville: Vanderbilt University, April 30,
1975, p. 75. Oak Ridge Operations Office, Re-
cords Holding Area, Documents 1944-1994, Box
H— 101-12, Bldg. 271 4-H, Folder 2401, Reports
May/July 1976, Vanderbilt University.
Brill, A.B “Radioisotope Studies Utilizing a Low
Level Whole Body Counter and Clinical Applica-
tions of Activation Analysis.” ERDA Progress
Report. Nashville: Vanderbilt University, July 31,
1977. Oak Ridge Operations Office, Records
Holding Area, Documents 1944-1994, Box
H-101-12, Bldg. 271 4-H, no folder. □
OR-20. Uranium Injections Into Terminally III
Cancer Patients
From 1953 to 1957, Oak Ridge National Labora-
tory and Massachusetts General Hospital con-
ducted a cooperative study on the distribution
and excretion of uranium in humans using termi-
nally ill brain cancer patients as subjects. Partici-
pants included male and female patients ranging
in age from 26 to 63 years. All were near death
(in a coma or semicoma) prior to injection and
were receiving usual hospital care for comatose
patients. Subjects were intravenously adminis-
tered uranium-233 (U 233 ) or uranium-235 (U 235 )
as either uranyl nitrate hexahydrate (9 patients)
or uranium tetrachloride (2 patients) in amounts
ranging from 4 to 50 milligrams. The subjects
expired from their brain cancer within several
months of injection. Study results indicated that
99 percent of the injected uranium cleared the
blood within 20 hours, either depositing in the
skeleton and kidneys or exiting through urine.
This work was supported by the U.S. Atomic En-
ergy Commission. (This experiment was refer-
enced in the Markey report.)
References
Bernard, S.R. “Maximum Permissible Amounts of
Natural Uranium in the Body, Air and Drinking
Water Based on Human Experimental Data.”
Health Physics, Vol. 1, 1958, pp. 288-305.
Bernard, S.R., J.R. Muir, and G.W. Royster, Jr.
“The Distribution and Excretion of Uranium in
Man.” in Proceedings of the Health Physics Soci-
ety, June 1956, pp. 33-48.
Luessenhop, A.J., J.C. Gallimore, W.H. Sweet,
E.G. Struxness, and J. Robinson. “The Toxicity in
Man of Hexavalent Uranium Following Intrave-
nous Administration.” American Journal of Roent-
genology, Radium Therapy and Nuclear Medi-
cine. Vol. 79, No. 1, 1958, pp. 83-100.
Struxness, E.G., A.J. Luessenhop, S.R. Bernard,
and J. C. Gallimore. “The Distribution and Excre-
tion of Hexavalent Uranium in Man.” in Proceed-
ings of the International Conference on the
Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy. New York:
United Nations, 1956, pp. 186-196. □
267
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Rec or ds
University of Chicago —
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital
UC-1. Chromium-51 and lron-59 Used to
Study Red Blood Cell Production
Studies were carried out in the early 1950s at
the Argonne Cancer Research Hospital to deter-
mine the rate of red cell production and destruc-
tion in healthy and anemic subjects. Two to four
microcuries of iron-59 (Fe 59 ) was added to 20
milliliters of plasma and injected into the arms of
the subjects. Several days after the administra-
tion of the Fe 59 , the procedure was repeated us-
ing chromium-51 (Cr^-labeled plasma. The sub-
jects were six healthy individuals and two anemic
individuals. The combined use of Cr 51 and Fe 59
provided an indicator of red cell survival and total
blood volume in humans. This work was carried
out under a contract between the Office of the
Surgeon General, the United States Army, and
the Department of Medicine of the University of
Chicago. The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission
provided funding to the Argonne Cancer Re-
search Hospital through the University of Chi-
cago, its operating contractor.
References
Weinstein, I.M. and E. Beutler. “The Use of Cr 51
and Fe 59 in a Combined Procedure to Study
Erythrocyte Production and Destruction in Nor-
mal Human Subjects and in Patients with Hemo-
lytic or Aplastic Anemia.” Semiannual Reports to
the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Vol. 1,
Parts 1-6, 1954 to 1956. Chicago: Argonne Can-
cer Research Hospital, pp. 70-75. The University
of Chicago, Office of Legal Counsel, Semiannual
Reports of the Argonne Cancer Research Hospi-
tal. □
UC-2. Studies on the Clinical Application of
Yttrium-90
In 1953, at the Argonne Cancer Research Hospi-
tal, preliminary studies were carried out with
yttrium-90 (Y 90 ) to determine whether Y 90 might be
used for intracavitary therapy. A patient in the ter-
minal stage of carcinomatosis was injected
intrapleurally with a solution containing about
1 ,350 microcuries of Y 90 . Samples of fluid were
withdrawn from the pleural cavity at 3, 24, and 48
hours and at autopsy, which was 7 days after the
administration of Y 90 . The study found that Y 90 had
a half-time of 30 to 36 hours. The U.S. Atomic En-
ergy Commission provided funding to the Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital through the University
of Chicago, its operating contractor.
References
LeRoy, G.V., R.W. Wissler, and D.W. Talmage.
“Preliminary Studies on the Clinical Application of
Yttrium-90 for Intrapleural Therapy.” Semiannual
Reports to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,
Vol. 1, Parts 1-6, 1954 to 1956. Chicago:
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital, pp. 1-4.
The University of Chicago, Office of Legal Coun-
sel, Semiannual Reports of the Argonne Cancer
Research Hospital. O
UC-3. Radioactive Sodium-2 Chromate Used
to Study Primaquine Sensitivity
In 1953, the University of Chicago and the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital conducted
studies to determine the hemolytic defect that
develops during primaquine administration. Pri-
maquine is an anti-malarial drug that induces an
acute hemolytic anemia in some people, mainly
members of heavily pigmented races. The sub-
jects for this study were healthy, male inmates
from the Illinois State Penitentiary at Statesville.
None of the inmates had ever had malaria. All of
the primaquine-sensitive subjects were African-
Americans and the primaquine-nonsensitive sub-
jects included both African-American and Cauca-
sian subjects. There was also one subject who
was a student at the University of Chicago, who
was included in the study because he had been
splenectomized two years prior to the initiation of
this research. Blood labeled with 200 to 300
microcuries of sodium chromate (Na 2 Cr s1 0 4 ) was
injected into both the normal subjects and the
group of primaquine-sensitive subjects. Subse-
quently, primaquine was administered to subjects
in both groups. Blood samples showed that the
primaquine-sensitive subjects developed a se-
vere anemia, which was attributed to a unique
susceptibility of their red blood cells. This study
was carried out under a contract between the
Department of Medicine at the University of Chi-
cago and the Office of the Surgeon General for
268
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Experiments — University of Chicago, Argon n e Cancer Research Hospital
the United States Army. The radiochromium was
obtained under an authorization from the Iso-
topes Division of the U.S. Atomic Energy Com-
mission at Oak Ridge, TN. The Argonne Cancer
Research Hospital was operated by the Univer-
sity of Chicago, which was funded by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Dern, R.J., I.M. Weinstein, D.W. Talmage, G.V.
LeRoy, and A.S. Alving. “Studies on the Mecha-
nism of Hemolysis in Primaquine-Sensitive Ne-
groes.” Semiannual Reports to the U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission, Vol. 1, Parts 1-6, 1954 to
1956. Chicago: Argonne Cancer Research Hos-
pital, pp. 37-41 . The University of Chicago, Of-
fice of Legal Counsel, Semiannual Reports of the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital. O
UC-4. Sodium-24 Chromate Used to Measure
Red Cell Survival Times in Subjects
with Liver Diseases
In 1953, at the Argonne Cancer Research Hos-
pital, sodium chromate labeled with sodium-24
(Na 24 ) was used to measure the red cell survival
time of patients with liver disease. The subjects
in this study were 19 patients with various types
of liver disease. Liver biopsies were taken from
all cases, except from 4 patients with bleeding
tendencies. The results indicated an abnormal
red cell survival time in these patients. This study
was supported in part by the Office of the Sur-
geon General, United States Army. The Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital was operated by the
University of Chicago, which was funded by the
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Jones, P.N., I.M. Weinstein, R.H. Ettinger, and
R.R. Capps. “Decreased Red Cell Survival Times
Associated with Liver Diseases As Measured
with Radioactive Sodium Chromate.” Semiannual
Reports to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,
Vol. 1, Parts 1-6, 1954 to 1956. Chicago:
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital, pp. 42-46.
The University of Chicago, Office of Legal Coun-
sel, Semiannual Reports of the Argonne Cancer
Research Hospital. □
UC-5. Radioactive Carbon in Studies of
Cholesterol Metabolism in Man
In 1955, a study on the metabolism of choles-
terol was reported by the Department of Medicine
and the Argonne Cancer Research Hospital of
the University of Chicago and the Los Alamos
Scientific Laboratory. The objective of the study
was to determine the rate at which cholesterol
labeled with carbon-14 (C 14 ) appeared in the
plasma and to determine now much of the C 14
was incorporated. This study was conducted on
patients admitted to the research wards of the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital. Thirty-four
subjects with various forms of cancer were stud-
ied. Both male and female subjects were in-
cluded; their ages ranged from 23 to 71 years.
Patients received 100 or 200 microcuries of C 14 -
labeled sodium acetate. The C 14 labeled acetate
was administered either orally or intravenously,
and in some cases by both routes. Larger
amounts were given to patients having the short-
est life expectancies. Blood was withdrawn at a
time point ranging from 30 minutes to several
weeks after administering the C 14 acetate. Some
patients were subjected to additional tests to de-
termine the amount of C 14 lost from the body by
respiration or excretion. This study was funded
by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, the
Damon Runyon Memorial Fund, and the Ameri-
can Cancer Society. (Previously described in #23
on the original list of 48 experiments released by
DOE in June 1994)
References
Gould, R.G., G.V. LeRoy, G.T. Okita, J.J.
Kabara, P. Keegan, and D.M. Bergenstal. “The
Use of C 14 -Labeled Acetate to Study Cholesterol
Metabolism in Man.” The Journal of Laboratory
and Clinical Medicine. Vol. 46, No. 3, September
1955, pp. 372-384. □
UC-6. Study of the Origin of Steroid Hor-
mones Using Tritium and Carbon-1 4-
Labeled Compounds
In 1955, A study was conducted at the Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital, in collaboration with
scientists at the Los Alamos Scientific Labora-
tory, to determine the relationship between
269
Human Radiation Experiments: The D OE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
dietary cholesterol and the synthesis of hor-
mones in the body. Seven patients who were to
have their adrenal glands surgically removed or
who were scheduled to have a therapeutic abor-
tion were fed 50 microcuries of tritium-labeled
(H 3 ) cholesterol seven days prior to surgery. An
additional amount of 10 microcuries H 3 -labeled
cholesterol was administered orally each suc-
ceeding day before surgery. During the surgery
the patient was given 100 microcuries of acetate
labeled with carbon-14 (C 14 ) by intravenous injec-
tion. The aborted fetuses, the removed adrenal
gland, and other biopsy tissue samples were an-
alyzed for C 14 - and H 3 -labeled cholesterol and
steroid-based hormones. This study showed that
dietary cholesterol was rapidly converted to ste-
roid hormones and that C 14 from the acetate
source was also incorporated into hormones.
The research was supported by the U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission. (Previously described in
#23 on the original list of 48 experiments re-
leased by DOE in June 1994)
References
Langham, W.H. and J.B. Storer. Biomedical Re-
search Group of the Health Division Annual Re-
port 1954. Los Alamos: Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratory, LA-1889, 1955, p. 24-25. □
UC-7. Sodium Chromate Used to Study Red
Biood Ceils
References
Weinstein, I.M., C.L. Spurling, H. Klein, and T.F.
Necheles. “Radioactive Sodium Chromate for the
Study of Survival of Red Blood Cells III. The Ab-
normal Hemoglobin Syndromes.” Semiannual
Reports to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,
Vol. 1, Parts 1-6, 1954 to 1956. Chicago:
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital, pp. 47-53.
The University of Chicago, Office of Legal Coun-
sel, Semiannual Reports of the Argonne Cancer
Research Hospital. □
UC-8. Biood Level Studies with Carbon-14
Digitoxin
In the mid-1950s, studies were conducted at the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital on the uptake
and retention of digitoxin labeled with carbon-14
(C 14 ). Digitoxin is a drug used in the treatment of
cardiac failure. This study sought to determine the
rate of disappearance of unchanged digitoxin and
to determine the conversion products arising from
the parent drug. Eight subjects with congestive
heart failure were given an intravenous injection of
0.5 to 1 .5 milligrams of 0.36 to 0.65 microcurie per
milligram of radioactive C 14 -digitoxin. Digitalis med-
ication had been withheld from 14 to 34 days prior
to the injection and none was given after the injec-
tion. Subsequent to the injection, several 10- to
20-milliliter blood samples were withdrawn in a 96-
hour period.
This research was carried out at the Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital in the mid 1950s. This
study was the first to use the chromium-51 (Cr 51 )
labeling technique to study red cell survival in pa-
tients with abnormal hemoglobin syndrome. The
subjects were 11 black patients with various blood
disorders, including 4 with sickle cell anemia, and
2 healthy black subjects. One hundred milliliters of
blood were withdrawn from each patient, labeled
with 200 microcuries of Cr 51 , and reinjected. Sam-
ples of blood and feces were collected and ana-
lyzed to determine red cell survival times. The
study showed that there was a decreased survival
of erythrocytes (red blood cells) in patients with
sickle cell anemia. The U.S. Atomic Energy Com-
mission provided funding to the Argonne Cancer
Research Hospital through the University of Chi-
cago, its operating contractor.
The same researchers conducted another study,
using three terminal patients. The purpose of the
second study was to determine the distribution of
digitoxin in various tissues of the body and to
determine the pathway by which the drug is re-
moved from the body. The radioactive digitoxin
was isolated from digitalis plants that had been
grown in an atmosphere of C 14 . The specific ac-
tivity of the drug ranged from 0.48 to 0.65 micro-
curie per milligram. For three terminal patients,
multiple doses were intravenously administered
to maintain an adequate concentration in the tis-
sues. Tissue samples were taken after the pa-
tients died. These tissues were analyzed for digi-
toxin content. Further research was conducted
where radioactive metabolites of digitoxin were
studied following the administration of single in-
travenous doses of digitoxin labeled with C 14 or
270
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Experiments — University of Chicago, Argonne Cancer Research Hospital
with H 3 . This research determined the reactions
that digitoxin undergoes in humans. The Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital was operated by the
University of Chicago, which was funded by the
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Okita, G.T., P.J. Talso, J.H. Curry, F.D. Smith,
and E.M.K. Ceiling. “Blood Level Studies of C 14 -
Digitoxin in Human Subjects with Cardiac Fail-
ure.” Semiannual Reports to the U.S. Atomic En-
ergy Commission, Vol. 1, Parts 1-6, 1954 to
1956. Chicago: Argonne Cancer Research Hos-
pital, pp. 69-73. The University of Chicago, Of-
fice of Legal Counsel, Semiannual Reports of the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital.
Okita, G.T., RJ. Talso, J.H. Curry, F.D. Smith,
and E.M.K. Geiling. “Metabolic Fate of Radioac-
tive Digitoxin in Human Subjects.” Semiannual
Reports to the U.S Atomic Energy Commission,
Vol. 1, Parts 1-6, 1954 to 1956. Chicago:
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital, pp. 62-68.
The University of Chicago, Office of Legal Coun-
sel, Semiannual Reports of the Argonne Cancer
Research Hospital.
Okita, G.T. and J.H. Curry. “Metabolism of Ra-
dioactive Digitoxin in Man.” Semiannual Reports
to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Vol. 3,
Part 101, 1961 and Parts 11 to 15, 1959 to 1961.
p. 101. The University of Chicago, Office of Legal
Counsel, Semiannual Reports of the Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital. □
UC-9. Carbon-1 4-Labeied Proteins in Multiple
Myeloma
This research was carried out at the Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital in the early to mid
1950s. A total of 5.41 grams of carbon-14 (C 14 )
labeled glycine were given orally in divided doses
over an 11 -hour period to a patient suffering from
multiple myeloma, a malignant neoplasm that
originates in the bone marrow and is character-
ized by abnormalities in formation of plasma pro-
tein. The myeloma cells produce abnormal pro-
teins in the serum and urine. Blood samples
were withdrawn and 24-hour urine collections
were analyzed to determine the rate of synthesis
and the possible precursor relationships of my-
eloma globulins and Bence-Jones proteins.
The same researchers conducted further experi-
ments with another patient who had different
pathological proteins and graver clinical condi-
tions. The subject of this experiment was a 70-
year-old male with multiple myeloma. The patient
was given 20.94 grams of stable nitrogen-1 5-la-
beled glycine. The results of this later experiment
showed the direct interaction of the Bence-Jones
proteins with the metabolic pool of nitrogen.
in a third experiment, a 64-year-old female pa-
tient was injected with C 14 -labeled lysine to deter-
mine the rate of synthesis and excretion of the
Bence-Jones protein. On the day of the experi-
ment, a catheter was inserted and the patient
was injected with 300 microcuries of
L-lysine labeled with C 14 . Urine and respiration
were analyzed and two dialysis experiments were
performed on the patient. The patient died of ure-
mia 2 months after admission to the hospital.
Another patient, a 67-year-old male who was ad-
mitted to the Argonne Cancer Research Hospital
for treatment and terminal care was injected with
450 microcuries of carbon-14 glutamic acid. One
reason for conducting this last experiment was to
learn whether glutamic acid might be a better
compound to use to study protein synthesis than
lysine or glycine. This research was supported by
grants from the National Cancer Institute, Na-
tional Institute of Health and the American Can-
cer Society. The Argonne Cancer Research Hos-
pital was operated by the University of Chicago,
which was funded by the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission.
References
Putnam, F.W. and Hardy, S. “Proteins in Multiple
Myeloma III. Origin of Bence-Jones Protein.”
Semiannual Reports to the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission, Vol. 1, Parts 1-6, 1954 to 1956.
Chicago: Argonne Cancer Research Hospital,
pp. 74-76. The University of Chicago, Office of
Legal Counsel, Semiannual Reports of the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital.
Hardy, S. and F.W. Putnam. “Proteins in Multiple
Myeloma IV. Interaction with Metabolic Nitrogen.”
Semiannual Reports to the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission, Vol. 1, Parts 1-6, 1954 to 1956.
Chicago: Argonne Cancer Research Hospital,
271
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
pp. 77-80. The University of Chicago, Office of
Legal Counsel, Semiannual Reports of the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital.
Putnam, F.W., F. Meyer, and A. Miyake. “Pro-
teins in Multiple Myeloma V. Synthesis and Ex-
cretion of Bence-Jones Protein.” Semiannual
Reports to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,
Vol. 1, Parts 1-6, 1954 to 1956. Chicago:
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital, pp. 31-37.
The University of Chicago, Office of Legal Coun-
sel, Semiannual Reports of the Argonne Cancer
Research Hospital.
Putnam, F.W. and A. Miyake. “Proteins in Multiple
Myeloma. VIII. Biosynthesis of Abnormal Proteins.”
Semiannual Reports to the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission, Vol. 2. Part 100, 1 956 and Parts
7-10, 1957 to 1958. Chicago: Argonne Cancer
Research Hospital, p. 27. The University of Chi-
cago, Office of Legal Counsel, Semiannual Re-
ports of the Argonne Cancer Research Hospital.
Putnam, F.W., A. Mikaye, and F. Meyer. “The Me-
tabolism of DL-Glutamic Acid-1 -C 14 in Man.” Semi-
annual Reports to the U.S. Atomic Energy Com-
mission, Vol. 2, Part 100, 1956 and Parts 7-10,
1957 to 1958. Chicago: Argonne Cancer Re-
search Hospital, pp. 35-43. The University of Chi-
cago, Office of Legal Counsel, Semiannual Re-
ports of the Argonne Cancer Research Hospital. □
UC-10. Carbon-1 4-Labeled Digitoxin
Administered to Pregnant Women to
Determine Fetal Distribution
T his study was conducted at the Argonne Can-
cer Research Hospital in the mid-1950s. The pur-
pose of the study was to investigate the transfer of
digitoxin across the placental barrier of pregnant
women and to determine the relative concentration
of the unchanged drug and its metabolic products
in various fetal organs. The subjects were four
pregnant women who were hospitalized at the Chi-
cago Lying-in Hospital. Three of the women had
abortions; the fourth delivered an anencephalic
baby. Three to 5 hours before hysterotomy, three
of the women were intravenously given from 0.25
to 0.5 milligram of digitoxin labeled with carbon-14
(C 14 ) at a concentration of 0.25 to 0.5 microcurie
per milligram. The fourth woman was given 0.5
milligram of the radioactive drug 2 to 3 hours be-
fore the expected time of delivery. The Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital was operated by the
University of Chicago, which was funded by the
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Okita, G.T., E.J. Plotz, and M.E. Davis. “Placen-
tal Transfer of Radioactive Digitoxin in Pregnant
Women and its Fetal Distribution.” Semiannual
Reports to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,
Vol. 1, Parts 1-6, 1954 to 1956. Chicago:
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital, pp. 26-30.
The University of Chicago, Office of Legal Coun-
sel, Semiannual Reports of the Argonne Cancer
Research Hospital. □
UC-11, Human Tracer Studies Using Tritium
and Carbon-1 4-Labeled Cholesterol
In 1957 , an experiment was conducted at the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital, using radio-
actively labeled cholesterol. A 60-year-old man
with chronic arthritis was the subject of this study.
He received an intravenous injection containing
33.8 microcuries of tritium-labeled (H 3 ) choles-
terol and 4.3 microcuries of cholesterol labeled
with carbon-14 (C 14 ). Blood samples were with-
drawn at various times starting about 4 hours
after injection and continuing periodically for 10
days. Urine samples were also collected and an-
alyzed for C 14 - and H 3 -labeled cholesterol and
steroid hormones. This experiment showed the
advantages of using H 3 and C 14 in humans. It
also showed the distribution of C 14 and H 3 in hor-
mones synthesized from cholesterol. This study
was funded by the Damon Runyon Memorial
Fund and the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
(Previously described in #23 on the original list of
48 experiments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Werbin, H., D.M. Bergenstal, R.G. Gould, and
G.V. LeRoy. “Evaluation of Tritium Cholesterol as
a Tracer in Man.” The Journal of Clinical Endocri-
nology and Metabolism. Vol. 17, No. 3, March
1957, pp. 337-345. □
272
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Experiments — University of Chicago, Argonne Cancer Research Hospital
Hormone Conversion During Human
This study was conducted by the Argonne Can-
cer Research Hospital in the mid- to late 1950s.
The purpose of the study was to determine
whether acetate and cholesterol are precursors of
estrone in pregnant women. The subject was a
36-year-old white woman who underwent a thy-
roidectomy prior to pregnancy. An intramuscular
injection of 35.09 microcuries of testosterone-4-C 14
was administered during the 7th week of preg-
nancy and an abortion was performed 4 days after
the injection. About 55 percent of the radioactivity
derived from the labeled testosterone was elimi-
nated from the body by way of the kidney. The
results of this experiment demonstrated the con-
version of testosterone to estrone during the
course of human pregnancy. The U.S. Atomic En-
ergy Commission provided funding to the Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital through the University
of Chicago, its operating contractor.
References
Ejarque, P M E.J. Plotz, and M.E. Davis. “Conver-
sion of Testosterone-4-C 14 into Esterone-C 14 Dur-
ing Human Pregnancy.” Semiannual Reports to
the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Vol. 2, Part
100, 1956 and Parts 7-10, 1957 to 1958. Chi-
cago: Argonne Cancer Research Hospital, pp.
61-65. The University of Chicago, Office of Legal
Counsel, Semiannual Reports of the Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital. □
In the late 1950s, studies were carried out at the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital to investigate
the metabolism of uric acid in humans. Uric acid
labeled with carbon-14 (C 14 ) was intravenously
injected into five individuals, consisting of two
healthy subjects, two gouty subjects, and one
patient with arteriosclerotic heart disease. Urine
samples were analyzed for C 14 content. For three
individuals, after the administration of the carbon-
14-labeled uric acid, samples of expired air were
collected and radioassayed. The expired air from
all three patients showed that some of the in-
jected uric acid had been degraded to carbon
dioxide and ammonia. Saliva, gastric juice, and
bile were also radioassayed to determine the
amount of uric acid excreted into the intestine.
To verify the role of the intestinal flora on uricoly-
sis, the degradation of intravenously adminis-
tered uric acid C 14 was studied before and after a
high degree of intestinal bacteriostasis had de-
veloped. The subject was a healthy 57-year-old
male, who was kept on a diet during the study
and for 10 days prior to the study. After intrave-
nous administration of 33.23 milligrams of uric
acid containing 35 microcuries of C 14 , urine and
expired-air samples were collected for 10 days.
On the 11th day, three types of antibiotics were
orally administered and after establishing the de-
sired bacteria level in the intestinal tract, 35
microcuries of C 14 -labeled uric acid was intrave-
nously injected. This research found that intesti-
nal flora play a prominent role in the degradation
of uric acid in humans. The Argonne Cancer Re-
search Hospital was operated by the University of
! • Chicago and supported by the U.S. Atomic En-
ergy Commission.
References
Sorensen, L.B. ‘The Degradation of Uric Acid in
Man.” Semiannual Reports to the U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission, Vol. 2, Part 100, 1956 and
Parts 7-10, 1957 to 1958. Chicago: Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital, pp.1- 20. The Uni-
versity of Chicago, Office of Legal Counsel,
Semiannual Reports of the Argonne Cancer Re-
search Hospital.
Sorensen, L.B. “Studies on Purine Metabolism:
Uric Acid Metabolism.” Semiannual Reports to
the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Vol. 3, Part
101, 1961 and Parts 11-15, 1959 to 1961. Chi-
cago: Argonne Cancer Research Hospital, pp.
96-98. The University of Chicago, Office of Legal
Counsel, Semiannual Reports of the Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital. □
UC-14. Carbon-14 Study of the Carbon
Dioxide Pool In Man
This research was conducted in the late 1 950s
at the Argonne Cancer Research Hospital. Since
many materials labeled with carbon-14 (C 14 ) are
oxidized to carbon-dioxide-labeled C 14 , this re-
search sought to determine the metabolic pool of
273
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
carbon dioxide in humans. A solution of NaHC 14 0 3
was given intravenously at a constant rate for a
period of two to four hours, while the one subject
breathed continuously through a beta-particle
chamber. The Argonne Cancer Research Hospital
was operated by the University of Chicago which
was funded by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commis-
sion.
References
Okita, G.T., R Meir, and G.V. LeRoy. ‘The Car-
bon Dioxide Pool in Man.” Semiannual Reports to
the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Vol. 3, Part
101, 1961 and Parts 11-15, 1959 to 1961. Chi-
cago: Argonne Cancer Research Hospital, pp.
19-21. The University of Chicago, Office of Legal
Counsel, Semiannual Reports of the Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital.
UC-15. Metabolism, Retention, and
Excretion of Motybdenum-99
In the late 1950s, the Argonne Cancer Re-
search Hospital conducted studies on the ab-
sorption and excretion patterns by means of
molybdenum-99 (Mo 99 ). The studies were carried
out on healthy subjects to determine the role of
molybdenum in the oxidation of hypoxanthine
and xanthine (precursors of uric acid). The uri-
nary excretion rate of molybdenum in normal
subjects was determined. Molybdenum was
readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract.
Seventy-five percent of ingested Mo 99 was
recovered in the first 24-hour urine sample. The
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital was oper-
ated by the University of Chicago, which was
funded by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Sorenson L.B. “Determination of Molybdenum in
Biological Material.” Semiannual Reports to the
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Vol. 3, Part
101, 1961 and Parts 11-15, 1959 to 1961. Chi-
cago: Argonne Cancer Research Hospital, p. 99.
The University of Chicago, Office of Legal Coun-
sel, Semiannual Reports of the Argonne Cancer
Research Hospital. □
UC-16. Metabolism of Strontium-85 and
Calcium-47
In 1960, at the Argonne Cancer Research Hos-
pital, tracer amounts of strontium-85 (Sr 35 ) as
strontium chloride, in doses from 26 to 40
microcuries, were administered intravenously to
seven adult subjects (six male and one female).
Measurements were made of blood specimens,
urine specimens, and total body gamma activity.
The subjects included a woman with moderate
osteoporosis, a 66-year-old male with multiple
myeloma, and 2 males in the 60-year age group.
The research found that strontium is retained
with greater avidity where there is deossification
of the skeleton (skeletal disease). One other pa-
tient with metastatic parathyroid carcinoma was
intravenously administered 50 microcuries of
Sr 85 , and total body counting was performed over
a 238-day period. Studies on the metabolism of
calcium were carried out using calcium-47 (Ca 47 ).
Sixteen hospitalized patients were counted in the
whole body counting facility following a single 20-
microcurie dose of Ca 47 . The Argonne Cancer
Research Hospital was operated by the Univer-
sity of Chicago, which was funded by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Hasterlik, R.J. “Metabolic Studies of Alkaline
Earth Metals: Metabolism of Strontium and Cal-
cium in the Human.” Semiannual Reports to the
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Vol. 3, Part
101, 1961 and Parts 11-15, 1959 to 1961. Chi-
cago: Argonne Cancer Research Hospital, pp.
11-13. The University of Chicago, Office of Legal
Counsel, Semiannual Reports of the Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital.
Hasterlik, R.J., G.V. LeRoy, and C.M. Newton.
“The Argonne Cancer Research Hospital Total-
Body Counter.” Semiannual Reports to the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission, Vol. 5, Parts 21-25,
Parts 102-104, 1964 to 1966. Chicago: Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital, pp. 70-72. The Uni-
versity of Chicago, Office of Legal Counsel,
Semiannual Reports of the Argonne Cancer Re-
search Hospital. □
274
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Experime nts — University of Chicago, Argonne Cancer Research Hospital
UC-17. Development of Iodine-1 31 -Labeled
Fluorescein as a Brain Tumor
Imaging Agent
This study was conducted in 1 960 at the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital. Fluorescein
labeled with radioiodine (I 131 ) was developed to
diagnose tumors of the central nervous system.
Information obtained included the rate of disap-
pearance from the blood, the rate of excretion,
distribution in tissues, and comparison of con-
centrations in brain tumors and in normal brain
tissue. Patients suspected of having brain tumors
were selected for studies on the localization and
retention of I 131 -fluorescein. Urine and stool sam-
ples were also collected from six patients over a
48-hour period for I 131 analysis. Two normal vol-
unteers were also injected with 5.7 microcuries of
I 131 -fluorescein. A total of 102 patients were in-
jected. This research was supported in part by a
grant from the American Cancer Society. The
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital was
operated by the University of Chicago, which was
funded by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Tocus, E.C., G.T. Okita, J.P. Evans, and S.
Mullan. “The Localization of Octoiodofluorescein-
I 131 .” Semiannual Reports to the U.S. Atomic En-
ergy Commission, Vol. 3, Part 101, 1961 and
Parts 11-15, 1959 to 1961. Chicago: Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital, pp. 104-113. The
University of Chicago, Office of Legal Counsel,
Semiannual Reports of the Argonne Cancer Re-
search Hospital. □
UC-18. Studies Using Carbon-1 4-Labeled
Compounds in Patients With Gout
Studies were conducted by the Argonne Can-
cer Research Hospital in the early 1960s on pa-
tients with gout to determine the metabolism of
uric acid in humans. This research was con-
ducted to determine whether patients with vari-
ous degrees and types of gout had an increased
incorporation of glycine into uric acid. Gout is an
inherited metabolic disorder characterized by
chronic arthritis and usually by an elevated uric-
acid blood level. Twelve patients with gout were
intravenously administered glycine labeled with
carbon-14 (C 14 ) over a period of 60 minutes. The
results of these experiments demonstrated that
excessive incorporation of glycine into uric acid is
usually confined to gouty subjects with abnor-
mally high urinary outputs of uric acid. Three of
the subjects who were overproducers of uric acid
were studied in detail to determine the pathway
whereby glycine is incorporated into uric acid
more promptly than in normal humans.
Two of the healthy subjects and one other patient
with gout, who did not overproduce uric acid,
were also part of this study. These individuals
were administered azathioprine, a cytotoxic and
immunosuppressive agent, for 7 to 10 days prior
to the intravenous administration of 100 micro-
curies glycine labeled with C 14 . This research
found that when azathioprine was given to sub-
jects who overproduce uric acid, their urinary uric
acid fell to normal values. The Argonne Cancer
Research Hospital was operated by the Univer-
sity of Chicago, which was funded by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Sorensen L.B. “The Pathogenesis of Gout.”
Semiannual Reports to the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission, Vol. 4, Parts 16-20, 1961 to 1963.
Chicago: Argonne Cancer Research Hospital,
pp. 23-40. The University of Chicago, Office of
Legal Counsel, Semiannual Reports of the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital.
Sorensen L.B. “Suppression of the Shunt Path-
way in Primary Gout by Azathioprine.” Semian-
nual Reports to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commis-
sion, Vol. 5, Parts 21-25, Parts 102-104, 1964 to
1966. Chicago: Argonne Cancer Research Hos-
pital, pp. 56-61. The University of Chicago, Of-
fice of Legal Counsel, Semiannual Reports of the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital. □
UC-19. Use of Molybdenum-99 for Liver
Scanning Studies
Molybdenum-99 was used as a tracer agent in
the early 1960s, at the Argonne Cancer Re-
search Hospital, to image the liver and to deter-
mine the disappearance from the blood of intra-
venously injected molybdenum-99 (Mo 99 ). Both
normal subjects and patients with liver disease
were administered between 40 and 100
275
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
microcuries of Mo" by intravenous injection.
Liver scans were performed at the Argonne Can-
cer Research Hospital’s whole body counting
facility. Subjects included normal volunteers and
one patient with viral hepatitis. Approximately 100
liver scans were performed using Mo" as a
tracer. The Argonne Cancer Research Hospital
was operated under contract by the University of
Chicago which was funded by the U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission.
References
Sorensen, L.B. and M. Archambault. “Visualization
of the Liver by Scanning Using Mo" (Molybdate)
as Tracer.” Semiannual Reports to the U.S. Atom-
ic Energy Commission, Vol. 4, Parts 16-20, 1961
to 1963. Chicago: Argonne Cancer Research Hos-
pital, pp. 57-68. The University of Chicago, Office
of Legal Counsel, Semiannual Reports of the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital. O
UC-20. Metabolism of Lithocholic Acid
Labeled with Carbon-14
These studies were carried out by the Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital in the early 1960s to
determine the metabolism of lithocholic acid.
Lithocholic acid, a steroid produced by the hu-
man body, is found in human bile and feces. A
dose of eleven microcuries of lithocholic acid la-
beled with carbon-14 (C 14 ) was orally adminis-
tered to four patients, 20 to 72 hours before elec-
tive gallbladder surgery for gallstones. Two other
patients with functioning gallbladders were stud-
ied after oral administration of 50 microcuries of
lithocholic acid labeled with C 14 . Bile was ob-
tained during their gallbladder operations and
analyzed for C 14 . The Argonne Cancer Research
Hospital was operated under contract by the Uni-
versity of Chicago which was funded by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Norman, A. and R.H. Palmer. “Metabolites of Lith-
ocholic Acid-24-C 14 in Human Bile and Feces.”
Semiannual Reports to the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission, Vol. 5, Parts 21-25, Part 102-104,
1964 to 1966. Chicago: Argonne Cancer Re-
search Hospital, pp. 65-81 . The University of Chi-
cago, Office of Legal Counsel, Semiannual Re-
ports of the Argonne Cancer Research Hospital.
Palmer R.H. “The Formation of Bile Acid Sul-
fates: A New Pathway of Bile Acid Metabolism in
Humans.” Semiannual Reports to the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission, Vol. 6, Parts 26-33.
Chicago: Argonne Cancer Research Hospital,
pp. 71-75. The University of Chicago, Office of
Legal Counsel, Semiannual Reports of the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital. □
UC-21. Preliminary Tracer Studies Using
Technetium-99m
Studies were conducted in 1961 at the Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital on the use of
technetium-99m (Tc 99m ) as a tracer and imaging
agent for nuclear medicine. Scans of human sub-
jects were made with a Picker Magnascanner 30
minutes after intravenous injection of Tc 99m . One
white female received an intravenous injection of
1 millicurie of Tc 99m . Thyroid scans were con-
ducted on a clinically normal white male 30 min-
utes after intravenous injection of Tc" m and the
results were compared with scans conducted
after iodine-131 (I 131 ) administration. The urinary
and fecal excretion of Tc 99m pertechnate was
studied in four patients. At least two normal sub-
jects, including a healthy African-American male,
were administered 440 microcuries of Tc 99m in
order to analyze radiocardiograms. Another male
subject was administered 1 millicurie of Tc" m and
dose calculations were made for the total body,
stomach, and thyroid. The purpose of this re-
search was to determine the biological retention
half-time, and suitability as an imaging agent, of
Tc 99m . With a biological retention half-time of 48
hours, Tc 99m was found to be a suitable imaging
agent . The Argonne Cancer Research Hospital
was operated under contract by the University of
Chicago, which was funded by the U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission.
References
Harper P.V., G. Andros, and K. Lathrop. “Prelimi-
nary Observations on the Use of Six-Hour Tc 99m
as a Tracer in Biology and Medicine.” Semian-
nual Reports to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commis-
sion, Vol. 4, Parts 16-20, 1961 to 1963. Chicago:
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital, pp. 76-88.
The University of Chicago, Office of Legal Coun-
sel, Semiannual Reports of the Argonne Cancer
Research Hospital.
276
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Experiments — University of Chicago, Argonne Cancer Research Hospital
Harper P.V., K.A. Lathrop, R.J. McCardle, and G.
Andros. ‘The Use of Tc 99m as Pertechnetate for
Thyroid Liver and Brain Scanning.” Semiannual
Reports to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,
Vol. 5, Parts 21-25, Part 102-104, 1964 to 1966.
Chicago: Argonne Cancer Research Hospital,
pp. 119-133. The University of Chicago, Office of
Legal Counsel, Semiannual Reports of the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital.
Harper P.V. and K. Lathrop. “Technetium-99m as
a Scanning Agent.” Semiannual Reports to the
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Vol. 5, Parts
21-25, Part 102-104, 1964 to 1966. Chicago:
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital, pp. 96-98.
The University of Chicago, Office of Legal Coun-
sel, Semiannual Reports of the Argonne Cancer
Research Hospital.
Harper P.V. and K. Lathrop. “The Pharmacody-
namics of Technetium Pertechnetate
(99m-Tc0 4 ).” Semiannual Reports to the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission, Vol. 5, Parts 21-25,
Part 102-104, 1964 to 1966. Chicago: Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital, pp. 97-98. The Uni-
versity of Chicago, Office of Legal Counsel,
Semiannual Reports of the Argonne Cancer Re-
search Hospital. □
UC-22. Metabolism and Absorption of Skin
Medications Labeled with Carbon-14
This research was conducted by the Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital in the mid-1960s.
Eleven normal and nine psoriatic Caucasian vol-
unteers served as experimental subjects. Pal-
mitic acid containing 1 microcurie of carboxyl
carbon (C 14 ) label dissolved in petroleum ether
was dripped onto each of two demarcated areas
of lesion-free skin on the back of each subject.
After 2.5 hours, the skin was wiped with petro-
leum ether-soaked cotton. The entire study was
repeated in four additional normal volunteers fol-
lowing the application of an ointment comparable
to the standard treatment for psoriasis. The study
was also repeated in one other normal volunteer
and in two patients with minor eczema. The
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital was oper-
ated under contract by the University of Chicago,
which was funded by the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission.
References
Gara, A., E. Estrada, S. Rothman, and A.L.
Lorincz. “Deficient Cholesterol Esterifying Ability of
Lesion-Free Skin Surfaces in Psoriatic Individu-
als.” Semiannual Reports to the U.S. Atomic En-
ergy Commission, Vol. 5, Parts 21-25, Part 102-
104, 1964 to 1966. Chicago: Argonne Cancer Re-
search Hospital, pp. 62-69. The University of Chi-
cago, Office of Legal Counsel, Semiannual Re-
ports of the Argonne Cancer Research Hospital.
Lorincz, A.L. “Specific Metabolic Processes in
Skin.” Semiannual Reports to the U.S. Atomic En-
ergy Commission, Vol. 5, Parts 21-25, Part 102-
104, 1964 to 1966. Chicago: Argonne Cancer Re-
search Hospital, p. 75. The University of Chicago,
Office of Legal Counsel, Semiannual Reports of
the Argonne Cancer Research Hospital. □
UC-23. Studies on the Use of Iodine-131
Antifibrinogen
This was a collaborative study between the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital and the Uni-
versity of Rochester conducted in the mid-1960s.
Its purpose was to determine the diagnostic and
therapeutic potential of antifibrinogen labeled
with iodine-131 (I 131 ), which was thought to com-
bine with circulating fibrinogen and to localize in
tumors. In half of the tumors studied, localization
allowed for clear visualization on scanning.
An antibody was intravenously administered. This
procedure was carried out in two patients. Al-
though some tumors imaged, this study was not
successful in treating cancer because of poor
localization of the antifibrinogen label with I 131 .
The Argonne Cancer Research Hospital was op-
erated under contract by the University of Chi-
cago, which was funded by the U.S. Atomic En-
ergy Commission.
References
Harper, P.V. and I. Spar. “l 131 -Antifibrinogen.”
Semiannual Reports to the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission, Vol. 5, Parts 21-25, Part 102-104,
1964 to 1966. Chicago: Argonne Cancer
Research Hospital, pp. 98-100. The University of
Chicago, Office of Legal Counsel, Semiannual
Reports of the Argonne Cancer Research Hospi-
tal. □
277
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
UC-24. Bone-tissue Radiography Using and
External Source of Iodine-125
A method was developed at the Argonne Cancer
Research Hospital in Chicago to measure bone
mineral content in animals or humans, using an
external iodine-125 (I 125 ) source. Bone mineral was
determined by transmitting a small beam of pho-
ton radiation from an I 125 source through a single
human finger bone, capturing an image of the fin-
ger on radiographic film. Mineral content was de-
termined by analyzing the image density. This
technique was tested on a group of postmeno-
pausal women (with ovaries removed) who were
estrogen deficient to determine the beneficial ef-
fects of estrogen therapy on bone mineralization.
Another group of postmenopausal women with
ovaries and no hormone therapy was also studied,
again using finger bone radiography. A group of
premenopausal women served as controls. One
hundred patients participated in this study. The
study showed that hormone therapy had a benefi-
cial effect on bone mineral content in women. The
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital was operated
by the University of Chicago and supported by the
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Lanzl, L.H. and N.M. Strandjord. “Measurement
of Bone Mineral Content Using a Radioactive De-
vice.” Semiannual Reports to the U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission, Vol. 5, Parts 21-25, Part
102-104, 1964 to 1966. Chicago: Argonne Can-
cer Research Hospital, pp. 141-142. The Univer-
sity of Chicago, Office of Legal Counsel, Semian-
nual Reports of the Argonne Cancer Research
Hospital. □
UC-25. Retention of Iron-59 in the Lungs
T his study was conducted at the Argonne Can-
cer Research Hospital in 1967. This study com-
pared the amount of blood lost from the body to
that retained from the lungs in a menopausal
woman with pulmonary hemosiderosis, a disease
characterized by expectoration of blood from the
lungs or bronchial tubes. This was the first study
in which linear profile scanning of iron-59 (Fe 59 )
was used for this purpose. When the patient was
in remission from the disease, 10 microcuries of
Fe 59 were injected intravenously. Analysis was
done on plasma iron clearance, serial body sur-
face counting rates, erythrocyte incorporation,
and linear profile scanning of Fe 59 . The Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital was operated under
contract by the University of Chicago which was
funded by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
References
DeGowin, R.L., L.B. Sorensen, D.B. Charleston,
A. Gottschalk, and J.H. Greenwald. “Retention of
Radioiron in the Lungs of a Woman with Idio-
pathic Pulmonary Hemosiderosis.” Semiannual
Reports to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,
Vol. 6, Parts 26-33, 1966 to 1970. Chicago:
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital, pp. 28-37.
The University of Chicago, Office of Legal Coun-
sel, Semiannual Reports of the Argonne Cancer
Research Hospital. □
UC-26. Studies on the interactive Effects of a
Drug Which induces Hyperthyroidism
on X-ray irradiation
This research was conducted by the Argonne
Cancer Research Hospital in the late 1960s to
determine whether induced hyperthyroidism in-
creased the sensitivity of tumors to therapeutic
x rays. The subjects of this experiment were pa-
tients with advanced cancer who could tolerate
an elevated metabolic rate caused by oral doses
of triiodothyronine. X rays were also administered
in daily fractionated doses. In two patients with
bronchogenic carcinomas, after induction of the
hyperthyroid condition, the metastases on one
side was treated and the other side was treated
only after the BMR had been allowed to return to
normal. At autopsy, 3 months after the treatment,
the side treated with the drug and the x rays
showed only fibrosis while the tumor was still
present in the side treated by x rays alone. An-
other patient with lung metastasis due to mela-
noma was subjected to the combined treatment
with no response. In two patients with adenocar-
cinoma brain metastases and unknown primary
lesions, the combined therapy was effective on
the brain lesions but not on the primary lesions.
The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission provided
funding to the Argonne Cancer Research Hospi-
tal through the University of Chicago, its operat-
ing contractor.
278
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Experiments — University of Rochester
References
Griem M.L. and J.A. Stein. ‘The Effect of L-triiodo-
thyronine on Radiation Sensitivity.” Semiannual
Reports to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,
Vol. 3, Part 101, 1961 and Parts 11-15, 1959 to
1961. Chicago: Argonne Cancer Research Hospi-
tal, pp. 52-54. The University of Chicago, Office of
Legal Counsel, Semiannual Reports of the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital. □
UC-27. Metabolism and Retention Studies
Using Seienium-75
These studies were carried out in the late 1960s
at the Argonne Cancer Research Hospital to de-
termine the organ uptake of selenium-75 (Se 75 ).
Four subjects were intravenously injected with
Se 75 . The first was a male with a varicose ulcer
who was administered 100 microcuries. The sec-
ond was a male with mild diabetes who was ad-
ministered 200 microcuries on one occasion and
was subsequently administered 220 microcuries.
Subjects were followed by whole body counting
for up to 30 months. The biological half-time was
found to be about 80 days. The results of this
study found that after a single injection of Se 75 ,
one-half of the Se 75 was eliminated from the body
after 80 days. The Argonne Cancer Research
Hospital was operated under contract by the Uni-
versity of Chicago, which was funded by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Lathrop, K.A., RV. Harper, and F.D. Malkinson.
“Human Total-Body Retention and Excretory
Routes of Se 75 from Selenomethionine.” Semian-
nual Reports to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commis-
sion, Vol. 6, Parts 26-33, 1966 to 1970. Chicago:
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital, pp. 49-57.
The University of Chicago, Office of Legal Coun-
sel, Semiannual Reports of the Argonne Cancer
Research Hospital. □
UC-28. Comparison of Gallium-68,
Technetium-99m, and indium-11 3m
for Diagnosis of Tumors
In the late 1960s, the Argonne Cancer Re-
search Hospital conducted studies to determine
the combination of radionuclide preparation and
imaging system with the best lesion-detection
capabilities per unit radiation dose. Preparations
of gallium-68 (Ga 60 ), technetium-99m (Tc 99m ), and
indium-11 3m (ln 113m ) were used to detect lesions
in the brain, kidney, liver, and lung. Biological
half-times in humans were compared with those
in mice by measuring radioactivity in the excreta.
The Argonne Cancer Research Hospital was op-
erated under contract by the University of
Chicago, which was funded by the U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission.
References
Lathrop, K.A., T.D. Cohen, R.N. Beck, and P.V.
Harper. “Comparison of Gallium-68, Technetium-
99m, and Indium-11 3m Used with the Gamma
Camera and the 3-Inch and 5-Inch Scanners for
Visualization of Lesions in the Brain, Kidney, Liver,
and Lung.” Semiannual Reports to the U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission, Vol. 6, Parts 26-33, 1966 to
1970. Chicago: Argonne Cancer Research Hospi-
tal, pp. 1-13. The University of Chicago, Office of
Legal Counsel, Semiannual Reports of the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital. □
University of Rochester
UR-1. Polonium-210 Metabolism and Excretion
Study
During the early 1940s, the University of Roch-
ester in New York conducted studies on the re-
tention, excretion, and gastrointestinal tract
absorption of polonium-210 (Po 210 ) in humans,
using patients at Strong Memorial Hospital in
Rochester, NY as subjects. The purpose of the
study was to determine occupational exposure
limits for use in radiation protection programs.
Five patients with advanced lymphoma or leuke-
mia participated. Four were administered an in-
travenous injection of 8 to 23 microcuries of Po 210
and one patient was orally administered 18.5
microcuries of Po 210 in tap water. Urine samples
were subsequently collected and analyzed for
Po 210 . All subjects died of preexisting ailments
shortly after the administrations. Tissues were
obtained at autopsy and examined for Po 210 con-
centration. This research was supported by the
Manhattan Engineer District. (This experiment
was referenced in the Markey report.)
279
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadm ap to the Story and t h e R ecords
References
Fink, R.M. “Biological Studies with Polonium, Ra-
dium, and Plutonium.” National Nuclear Energy
Series. Div. VI, Vol. 3. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1950.
Stannard. J.N. Radioactivity and Health: A His-
tory. Office of Scientific and Technical Informa-
tion. 1988, p. 213-214. □
UR-2. Uranium Injections
From August 1946 to January 1947, the Univer-
sity of Rochester conducted toxicity studies on
uranium, using hospital patients as subjects. The
purpose of the studies was to determine the dose
level at which renal injury is first detectable, mea-
sure the rate at which uranium is eliminated from
the body once it enters the bloodstream, and ob-
serve the effect of measures intended to alter the
excretion rate. Human subjects included four
males and two females, all with good kidney
function, ranging in age from 24 to 61 years. All
had medical conditions, such as undernutrition,
alcoholism, or heart disease. Highly enriched
uranium (uranium-234 and uranium-235) was
administered intravenously as uranyl nitrate in
amounts ranging from 6.4 to 70.9 micrograms
per kilogram of body weight. At levels approach-
ing 50 micrograms per kilogram, the preparation
was diluted with natural uranyl acetate (U 238 ) to
limit the potential radiotoxicity associated with
systemic enriched uranium. Five subjects re-
ceived a single injection and experienced no kid-
ney damage. The sixth subject experienced
slight kidney tissue toxicity at the 70.9 micro-
gram/kg level, suggesting that the human toler-
ance level had been reached. This patient was
administered ammonium chloride to induce an
acidosis condition (a decrease in alkali relative to
acid in bodily fluids), then received a second in-
jection of uranyl nitrate at a dose of 56.6 micro-
gram per kilogram.
These studies showed that the tolerance level for
uranium in the human circulation was about 70
micrograms per kilogram of body weight, that
uranium excretion occurred mainly through urine,
that 70 to 85 percent was eliminated in the first
24 hours, and that acidosis decreased the rate of
uranium excretion. This research was supported
by the Manhattan Engineer District. (This experi-
ment was referenced in the Markey report.)
References
Bassett, S.H., A. Frankel, N. Cedars, H. Van
Alstine, C. Waterhouse, and K. Cusson. The Ex-
cretion of Hexavalent Uranium Following Intrave-
nous Administration. II. Studies on Human Sub-
jects. Rochester: The University of Rochester,
UR-37, June 1948. □
UR-3. Ingestion of Milk Containing iodine-131
This study was conducted in 1 963 by a graduate
student at the University of Rochester to investi-
gate the human body’s metabolism of radioiodine
found in dairy products. The research sought to
determine if iodine found in milk was transferred to
the thyroid in the same quantities as the inorganic
iodide commonly used in medical studies. As
much as 40 percent of the iodine found in milk
was found to be protein bound. The study focused
on the range of uptake percentages in children of
various ages. Subjects for the experiment were
chosen with an emphasis on the younger age
groups, since the majority of known research had
been conducted on adults. The subjects ranged in
age from 6 years to 50 years; seven were less
than 21 years old. The milk used for this study was
obtained from Cornell University’s Department of
Veterinary Medicine, where a cow had been fed
iodine-131 (I 131 ) so as to produce 5,000 to 10,000
picocuries per liter in its milk. All subjects were put
on an iodine restricted diet prior to the study and
then were fed the I 131 milk for a minimum of 14
days. One of the children in this study subse-
quently developed thyroid carcinoma. The re-
search was performed under a contract with the
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Cuddihy, R.G. “Hazard to Man from I 131 in the En-
vironment." Health Physics. Vol. 12, 1966, pp.
1,021-1,025. □
UR-4. The Fate of Radon ingested by Man
In 1964, the Department of Radiation Biology at
the University of Rochester conducted a study on
the fate of radon ingested by humans. Two male
280
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Experiments — University of Rochester
subjects, one 56 and the other 36, participated.
On two occasions, each subject drank approxi-
mately 1 microcurie of radon-222 (Rn 222 ) in equi-
librium with its decay products in 100 milliliters of
water. On three separate days, the ingestions of
radon were followed by a normal breakfast; the
fourth followed a larger breakfast high in fat. The
subject’s respired air, blood, and urine were ob-
tained and sampled for Rn 222 activity. This study
provided rates at which the body loses radon and
the impact of stomach contents on the rate of
loss. The research was supported by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission. (Previously de-
scribed in #29 on the original list of 48 experi-
ments released by DOE in June 1 994)
References
Hursh, J.B., D. A. Morken, T.P. Davis, and A.
Lovaas. “The Fate of Radon Ingested by Man.”
Health Physics. Vol. 11, 1965, pp. 465-476. □
Other
OT-1 . Study of Blood Volumes With
Iodine-1 31 -Tagged Plasma Protein
Case Western Reserve University conducted
this study in 1950. Blood volume determinations
were made on 76 ambulatory hospital patients
who exhibited normal fluid and protein balance.
The subjects were injected with plasma protein
tagged with iodine-131 (I 131 ) while they were fast-
ing. They were confined to bed until the experi-
ment was completed. Approximately 40 to 60
microcuries of I 131 were intravenously injected.
Twelve patients who were to receive spinal anes-
thesia were also given radioactive iodinated pro-
tein at various intervals, preceding the adminis-
tration of the anesthesia. No radioactivity was
detected in the spinal fluid of these patients. The
studies on the patients confined to bed showed
that an average of 8 to 12 percent of the injected
radioactive iodine was found in the urine within
24 hours of the injection. This research was
partly supported by an Atomic Energy Commis-
sion contract.
References
Storaasli, J.P., H. Krieger, H.L. Friedell, and
W.D. Holden. “The Use of Radioactive Iodinated
Plasma Protein in the Study of Blood Volume.”
American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology.
Vol. 91, October 1950, pp. 458-464.
Storaasli, J.P., H. Krieger, H.L. Friedell, and
W.D. Holder. The Use of Plasma Protein Tagged
Iodine- 131 in the Study of Blood Volumes. Cleve-
land: Western Reserve University, NYO-1608,
July 6, 1950. □
QT-2. The Use of iodine-1 31 -Labeled Human
Serum Albumin to Evaluate the Periph-
eral Circulation
This research was carried out in 1 952 at Case
Western Reserve University. Human serum albu-
min labeled with iodine-131 (I 131 ) was injected
into 77 subjects and a scintillation counter was
used to determine cardiac output and to observe
peripheral vascular flow. Approximately 150
microcuries of radioiodinated albumin were in-
jected into the subjects. A series of these experi-
ments were performed on young subjects with
normal circulation. Four of the young subjects
had one foot immersed in hot water for 20 min-
utes before the labeled albumin was injected into
them. In two other subjects, the foot was im-
mersed in ice water for 10 minutes before the
test was performed. The study was carried out
under contract with the U.S. Atomic Energy Com-
mission.
References
Krieger, H., J.P. Storaasli, W.J. MacIntyre, W.D.
Holden, and H. Friedell. “The Use of Radioactive
Iodinated Human Serum Albumin in Evaluating
the Peripheral Circulation.” Annals of Surgery,
Vol. 136, No. 3, September 1952, pp. 357-365.
MacIntyre, W.J., J.P. Storaasli, H. Krieger, W.H.
Pritchard, and H.L. Friedell. I 131 Labelled Serum
Albumin — Its Use in the Study of Cardiac Output
and Peripheral Vascular Flow. Cleveland: West-
ern Reserve University, NYO-1642, March 11,
1952. □
281
Human Radiation Experiments: The DO E Roadmap t o the Sto ry an d the R ecords
OT-3. Us© of l 131 -Labeled Protein in the Study
of Protein Digestion and Absorption in
Children with and Without Cystic
Fibrosis of the Pancreas
This study was performed in 1 952 at Case
Western Reserve University. During the two de-
cades prior to the study, several studies of pro-
tein digestion and absorption were carried out
both in normal individuals and in patients with
various diseases. This study describes a simple
and accurate method to determine the efficiency
of protein digestion and absorption, by measuring
the isotope content of the feces after oral inges-
tion of protein labeled with iodine-131 (I 131 ). The
subjects were 10 children with diseases that did
not specifically involve the gastrointestinal tract
and 5 children with cystic fibrosis of the pan-
creas. These patients fasted for 12 hours before
the experiment; then, a test meal containing I 131
was orally administered in place of breakfast.
The test meal contained approximately 1 micro-
curie of labeled protein per kilogram of body
weight. In the five children with cystic fibrosis of
the pancreas, pancreatin was withheld for 3 days
prior to and during the initial test. The subjects
ranged in age from 1 .6 years to 9 years. The re-
search demonstrated a diminished retention of
dietary protein in cystic fibrosis of the pancreas.
This research was supported by a U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission contract.
References
Lavik P.S., L.W. Matthews, G.W. Buckaloo, F.J.
Lemm, S. Spector, and H.L. Friedell. “Use of I 131
Labeled Protein in the Study of Protein Digestion
and Absorption in Children with and without Cystic
Fibrosis of the Pancreas.” Pediatrics. Vol. 10,
1952, p. 667-675.
Lavik, P.S., L.W. Matthews, G.W. Buckaloo, S.
Spector, and H.L. Friedell. Use of I 131 Labeled
Protein in the Study of Protein Digestion and Ab-
sorption in Children with and without Cystic Fi-
brosis of the Pancreas. Cleveland: Western Re-
serve University, NYO-4025, August 15,
1952. □
— •
OT-4. Thyroidal Deposition of Iodine-131 In
Man, Rat, and Dog, From Milk and
Nonmilk Sources
In 1963, Cornell University conducted studies
on the comparative uptake of iodine from ingested
water and milk, using human and animal subjects.
Eleven healthy male volunteers ranging in age
from 26 to 52 years participated and ingested 0.1
liter of milk containing iodine-131 (I 131 ). The study
used milk obtained from cows that had been fed
I 131 two days prior to milk collection. The milk con-
tained approximately 2.5 microcuries of I 131 per
liter. Inorganic I 131 was administered with 100 milli-
liters of water containing about 0.26 microcurie of
I 131 . Results of the study indicated that there was
no significant difference in the uptake of iodine in
humans when obtained through milk or water. This
work was supported by the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission. (Previously described in #47 on the
original list of 48 experiments released by DOE in
June 1994)
References
Comar, C.L., R.A. Wentworth, and J.R. Georgi.
“Thyroidal Deposition in Man, Rat and Dog of
Radioiodine from Milk and Non-Milk Sources.”
Health Physics. Vol. 9, 1963, pp. 1,249-1,252. □
OT-5. Plasma Volume Studies Using
Chromium-51 -Chloride
This research was conducted at the Biophysi-
cal Laboratory and the Department of Medicine
at Harvard Medical School and the Medical Clinic
at Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston. Ap-
proximately 100 microcuries of chromium-51
(Cr 51 ) as chromium chloride were intravenously
injected into 26 normal adults (5 women and 21
men). After allowing 5 minutes for mixing within
the circulation, researchers drew four samples of
blood and analyzed them in a gamma counter to
determine plasma volumes. The plasma volumes
were determined by this method. In some sub-
jects, a second study was also performed. This
method was further tested by measuring the
plasma volume before and after transfusion or
hemorrhage of between 250 and 500 milliliters of
282
Chapter 3, Huma n Ra diation E xper iment s — U niversity of Roch ester
plasma in hospital patients and volunteer sub-
jects. This research was supported in part by the
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission and in part by
the United States Public Health Service.
References
Frank, H. and S.J. Grey. “The Determination of
Plasma Volume in Man with Radioactive Chromic
Chloride.” Journal of Clinical Investigation, Vol.
32, No. 10, 1953, pp. 991-999. □
OT-6. Iodine-131 Uptake by the Human
Embryo
In 1953, studies were conducted at the Univer-
sity of Iowa, Iowa City, on the uptake of iodine-
131 (I 131 ) in thyroids of human embryos in utero.
Pregnant women scheduled for therapeutic abor-
tions were given dosages of 100 to 200
microcuries of I 131 . Some time later, the abortions
were performed. The aborted embryos were sec-
tioned and autoradiographed. The human em-
bryos showed thyroid uptake at 4 weeks, nearly
one month earlier than was previously known.
This finding was useful in understanding the
transfer of radioiodine across the placental bar-
rier. This study showed that it would not be pru-
dent to administer I 131 to pregnant women for
diagnostic or therapeutic purposes. The number
of subjects is not known. This work was funded
by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. (Previ-
ously described in #5 on the original list of 48
experiments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. Monthly Status
and Progress Report Division of Biology and
Medicine. June 1953. U.S. Department of Energy
Archives, Record Group 326, Division of Biology
and Medicine, Box 3363, Folder 23. O
OT-7. Uptake of Iodine-131 in Normal Newborn
Infants in Iowa City
-r ..oh / 1 1 31 \ .udied in
The UPTAKE OF IODINE-1 31 (I ) was St
newborn infants at the University of Iowa, Iowa
City, in 1963. Twelve male and 13 female infants
were included in this study. All were less than 36
hours old, weighted between 5.5 and 8.5 pounds,
and were considered to be healthy and normal.
Less than 1 microcurie of I 131 was administered to
each newborn. Eight received the radioiodine
orally and 17 by intramuscular injection. The con-
centration of I 131 in the thyroid was measured using
a thyroid gamma probe. Measurements were con-
tinued at intervals of 2 to 8 hours for 3 to 4 days.
This study showed that I 131 was taken up by the
thyroid at a higher level and more rapidly when
administered by injection rather then ingestion.
This study was supported by the U.S. Atomic En-
ergy Commission and the American Cancer Soci-
ety. (Previously described in #4 on original 48 ex-
periments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Morrison, R.T., J.A. Birkbeck, T.C. Evans, and
J.l. Routh. “Radioiodine Uptake Studies Newborn
Infants.” Journal of Nuclear Medicine. Vol. 4,
1963, pp. 162-1 66. □
OT-8. Uptake of Iodine-131 in Normal Newborn
Infants in Nebraska
The thyroid function of infants was studied
jointly by the Veterans Administration Hospital,
Omaha, NB, and the Department of Radiology,
University of Nebraska, College of Medicine, in
1960. Twenty-eight normal, healthy infants from
the nursery at the College of Medicine, including
16 males and 12 females ranging in age from 72
to 180 hours, were involved in the experiment. The
newborn infants were given 5 microcuries of
iodine-131 (I 131 ) through a gastric tube. The con-
centration of I 131 in the thyroid was measured 24
hours later. This study showed the thyroid of a
newborn functioned similarly to those of adult thy-
roids. The subject’s sex and weight were not re-
lated to thyroid function. (Previously described in
#4 on original 48 experiments released by DOE in
June 1994)
References
Ogborn, R.E., R.E. Waggener, and E. VanHove.
“Radioactive-Iodine Concentration in Thyroid
Glands of Newborn Infants.” Pediatrics. Vol. 26,
November 1960, pp. 771-776. O
283
Hu man Radiation Experi ment s: The DO E Roadmap to th e Sto r y and the Records
OT-9. Uptake of Iodine-131 in Normal Newborn
Infants in Memphis
Iodine-131 (I 131 ) was used to stu^ u P ta * <e
iodine in normal, newborn infants at the Univer-
sity of Tennessee, Memphis, in 1954. Seven
male infants (one white and six black) between 2
and 3 days old were injected intravenously with 1
to 1.5 microcuries of I 131 . The concentration of I 131
in the thyroid was measured 24 hours after injec-
tion. Absorbed doses to the infant thyroids were
estimated to be about 60 rads. The I 131 uptake of
the thyroid of the subjects was found to lie within
the range of values that would be found in hyper-
thyroid adults. This study was supported by a
grant from the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
(Previously described in #4 on the original list of
48 experiments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Middlesworth, L.Van. “Radioactive Iodide Uptake
of Normal Newborn Infants.” AMA American
Journal of Diseases of Children. Vol. 88, October
1954, pp. 439-442. □
OT-10. Radioactive Isotope Studies at Tulane
In the late 1940s and early 1 950s, a series of
metabolic experiments was conducted at Charity
Hospital and Tulane University School of Medi-
cine, New Orleans, LA. The focus of the experi-
ments was to investigate the role of electrolytes
in normal humans and in patients with congestive
heart failure. The total number of subjects is not
specified, but as many as 269 people could have
been included in the study. Some of these sub-
jects may have participated in more than one
study. The radioisotope studies examined reten-
tion times, excretion rates, biologic decay rates,
and a variety of other physiological parameters.
The radioisotopes used included: mercury-203
(Hg 203 ), mercury-205 (Hg 205 ), chlorine-36 (Cl 36 ),
sodium-22 (Na 22 ), sodium-24 (Na 24 ), rubidium-86
(Rb 86 ), potassium-39, (K 39 ), and potassium-42
(K 42 ). One subject received only X rays to deter-
mine the effects of radiation on humans. (Previ-
ously described in #8 on the original list of 48
experiments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Burch, G.E., S.A. Threefoot, J.A. Cronvich, and
P. Reaser. “Theoretic and Experimental Consid-
erations of Biological Decay Periods: Studies in
Man with the Use of Na 22 .” in Cold Spring Harbor
Symposia On Quantitative Biology. Vol. 13, 1948,
pp. 63-74.
Burch, G.E., P. Reaser, and J. Cronvich. “Rates
of Sodium Turnover in Normal Subjects and in
Patients with Congestive Heart Failure.” The
Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine. Vol.
32, No. 10, 1947, pp. 1,169-1,191.
Burch, G.E., R.S. Sohal, S. Sun, G.C. Miller, and
H. L. Colcolough. “Effects of Radiation on the
Human Heart.” Archives of Internal Medicine.
Vol. 221, 1968, pp. 230-234.
Burch, G.E., S.A. Threefoot, and P.B. Reaser.
“Some Aspects of Renal Excretion of Na 24 by Nor-
mal Subjects and by Patients with Congestive
Heart Failure.” Stanford Medical Bulletin. Vol. 6,
No. 1, 1948, pp. 81-87.
Burch, G.E., S.A. Threefoot, and P.B. Reaser.
“Aspects of the Biological Decay Periods of So-
dium in Normal and Diseased Men.” Science. Vol.
107, 1948, pp. 91-92. □
OT-11. Iron Metabolism in Human Pregnancy
as Studied With the Radioactive
Isotope Iron-59
From 1945 through 1949, Vanderbilt University
Hospital conducted studies on iron absorption in
pregnant women. Participants in the study were
part of a larger nutrition survey conducted by the
hospital. In all, 829 normal, healthy, pregnant
women ingested radioactive iron-59 (Fe 59 ) in an
amount ranging from 1 .8 to 1 20 milligrams. The
Fe 59 was administered at various times in the
gestation period ranging from fewer than 10 to
more than 35 weeks. Radioactivity in the blood
was measured 2 weeks and, again, 3 weeks af-
ter administration. The study showed that iron
uptake is related to both dosage level and gesta-
tion period. The percentage of absorption de-
creased as the amount administered went up,
while the actual amount of iron absorbed in-
creased. Also, uptake increased later in the ges-
tation period. At 30 weeks, three times as much
284
Chapter 3. Hu man Rad iatio n Exp e rim e nts — Un iversit y of Rocheste r
iron was absorbed as at 15 weeks. This research
was supported by the Nutrition Foundation, Inc.,
The Rockefeller Foundation, and the Tennessee
State Department of Health.
From 1964 to 1967, Vanderbilt University School
of Medicine conducted a follow-up study on the
children born to these women. The study in-
cluded 679 children of mothers who had been
fed Fe 59 and 705 children of mothers in the origi-
nal study control population. One case of leuke-
mia and two cases of sarcoma were discovered
in the Fe 59 population. There were no malignan-
cies in the control population. Compared to an
expected incidence of less than one, the three
cases are statistically significant. There were no
differences in malignancies among the mothers,
congenital defects among the children, or con-
genital defects among subsequent children be-
tween the two populations. This follow-up work
was supported by the U.S. Public Health Service
and the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. (Previ-
ously described in #1 on the original list of 48
experiments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Hahn, P.F., E.L Carothers, W.J. Darby, M. Mar-
tin, C.W. Sheppard, R.O. Cannon, A.S. Beam,
P.M. Densen, J.C. Peterson, and G.S. McClellan.
“Iron Metabolism in Human Pregnancy as Stud-
ied with the Radioactive Isotope, Fe 59 .” American
Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. Vol. 61 ,
No. 3, March, 1953, pp. 477-486.
Hagstrom, R.M., S.R. Glasser, A.B. Brill, and
R.M. Heyssel. “Long Term Effects of Radioactive
Iron Administered During Human Pregnancy.”
American Journal of Epidemiology. Vol. 90, No.
1, pp. 1-10. □
OT-12. Sodium-24 Used to Study Exchange-
able Sodium in Relation to the Men-
strual Cycle
This study was conducted in 1 969 at Vanderbilt
University. Six healthy female volunteers, be-
tween the ages of 19 to 44 years, with no history
of hypertension and with normal blood pressure,
were fed a constant sodium diet for 30 to 45
days. After administration of a 10 microcuries
oral dosage of sodium-24 (Na 24 ), exchangeable
sodium spaces were measured during the follicu-
lar phase and the luteal phase of the menstrual
cycle. The subjects were followed daily at the
Clinical Research Center for excretion of sodium,
potassium and creatinine, urine volume, body
weight, and basal body temperature. This re-
search was funded by grants from the Public
Health Service, the American Heart Association,
and the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Michelakis, AM., E.G. Stant, and A.B. Brill. "So-
dium Space and Electrolyte Excretion During the
Menstrual Cycle." American Journal of Obstetrics
& Gynecology. Vol. 109., No. 1, January 1, 1971,
pp. 150-154.
Brill, A.C. AEG Progress Report: Radiation Do-
simetry and Biological Turnover of Radionuclides
Used in Nuclear Medicine in Prenatal and Post-
natal Subjects Using Stable and Radioactive
Tracer. Nashville: Vanderbilt University, October
31, 1969. Oak Ridge Operations Office, Public
Reading Room/Public Information Office, RHA
Shipment 9162, Box 6 and 7, New York Times
FOIA Requests 88-91 . □
OT-13. Chromium-50-Labeted Red Cell
Studies in Newborn Infants With
Hyaline Membrane Disease
In 1969, at Vanderbilt University, chromium-50
(Cr 50 ) was used to label red cells in studies of
newborn infants with the hyaline membrane dis-
ease. The studies were performed with a twofold
purpose: (1) to determine the blood volume in
these children, and (2) to determine, for those
who died, whether hemorrhage had occurred
prior to or after Cr 50 labeling. Measurements of
red blood cell volumes were made on 86 new-
born infants with respiratory distress. Of these
infants, 28 were found to have intracranial hem-
orrhage at autopsy and 22 had their major bleed-
ing episode after they were tagged with the Cr 50 .
Large quantities of blood were drawn from these
infants for extensive diagnostic studies and the
replacement transfusions of donor blood was
labeled with Cr 50 .
The researchers also conducted further studies on
one infant and three adult patients using dual
285
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to th e Story and the Records
tracers of chromium-51 (Cr 51 ) and Cr 50 and mea-
suring blood volume. This study was supported in
part by an Atomic Energy Commission contract
and in part by a grant from the National Heart Insti-
tute.
References
Dyer, N.C., A.B. Brill, G. Faxelius, and M.
Stahlman. “Blood Volume and Hemorrhage Tim-
ing in Newborn Infants with Respiratory Distress
using the Stable Tracer Cr 50 .” in Neutron Sources
and Applications: Proceedings of the Nuclear
Society National Topical Meeting in Augusta,
Georgia, April 19-21, 1971. April 18, 1971, pp.
V-46-V-52.
Brill, A.B. AEC Progress Report Radiation Do-
simetry and Biological Turnover of Radionuclides
Used in Nuclear Medicine in Prenatal and Post-
natal Subjects Using Stable and Radioactive
Tracers. Nashville: Vanderbilt University, October
31, 1969. Oak Ridge Operations Office, Public
Reading Room/Public Information Office, RHA
Shipment 9162, Box 6 and 7, New York Times
FOIA Requests 88-91. □
OT-14. Testicular Irradiation of Washington
State Prison Inmates
From 1963 to 1973, the University of Washing-
ton conducted studies on the effects of radiation
on human testicular function using inmates at the
Washington State Prison in Walla Walla, WA, as
subjects. Initially, 232 healthy volunteers were
accepted into the study program. Sixty were sub-
sequently irradiated with acute doses of x rays,
ranging from 7.5 to 400 rads to the testes. Four
other participants went through an identical pro-
cedure, but received no radiation. Forty-three
were released from the program for a variety of
reasons. The remaining 125 inmates served as
control subjects in the study. Each inmate se-
lected for the study had expressed a desire to
undergo a vasectomy at the conclusion of the
study. Fifty-three subjects received post-study
vasectomies. The other 11 subjects either
declined the procedure or did not receive vasec-
tomies. Tissue samples were analyzed at the
Biology Division of Oak Ridge National Labora-
tory, whose participation was reviewed and ap-
proved by an institutional review board.
These studies showed that doses of 7.5 rads had
no adverse affect on testicular function, that
doses of 27 rads inhibited generation of sperm
cells, that doses of 75 rads destroyed existing
sperm cells, and that doses of 100 to 400 rads
produced temporary sterility. All subjects of the
study eventually recovered to their normal
preirradiation condition prior to vasectomy. Study
results showed that adult males are very radio-
sensitive to temporary sterility, but also radiore-
sistant to complete sterility. This work was sup-
ported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
(This experiment was referenced in the Markey
report.)
References
Paulsen, C.A. The Study of Irradiation Effects on
the Human Testis: Including Histologic, Chromo-
somal and Hormonal Aspects. Terminal Report,
AEC Contract #AT(45-1 )-2225. Seattle: University
of Washington School of Medicine, January 31 ,
1973.
Thorslund, T.W. and C.A. Paulsen. “Effects of
X-Ray Irradiation on Human Spermatogenesis.”
in Proceedings of the National Symposium on
Natural and Man-Made Radiation in Space. E.A.
Warman, ed. NASA Document TM X-2440,
1972, pp. 229-232. □
OT-15. Radioactive iron in Humans
In the early 1950s, a study was conducted at
University Hospital at the University of Washing-
ton on the iron metabolism and the production of
red blood cells. Iron-55 (Fe 55 ) and iron-59 (Fe 59 )
were injected into either normal subjects or ane-
mic subjects. Approximately 20 subjects received
Fe 55 ; another 60 to 80 received Fe 59 in amounts
ranging from 5 to 10 microcuries. Blood samples
were drawn at different times and counted to de-
termine radioiron content. This study was sup-
ported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
(Previously described in #40 on the original list of
48 experiments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Giblett, E.R., D.H. Coleman, G. Pirzio-Biroli, D.M.
Donohue, A.G. Motulsku, and C.A. Finch.
“Erythrokinetics: Quantitative Measurements of
Red Cell Production and Destruction in Normal
286
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Experimen ts — University of Rochester
Subjects and Patients with Anemia.” Blood. Vol. 1 ,
1956, pp. 291-309.
Finch, C.A., E.R. Giblett, D.M. Donohue, A.V.
Hurtado, A.G. Motulsky, and R.H. Reiff. “Quanti-
tative Aspects of Erythropoiesis in Man.’’ Trans-
actions of the Association of American Physi-
cians. Vol. 69, 1956, pp. 149-154.
Sturgeon, P. and C.A. Finch. “Erythrokinetics in
Cooley’s Anemia.” Blood, vol. 12, 1957, pp.
64-73.
Bothwell, T.H., A.V. Hurtado, D.M. Donohue, and
C.A. Finch. “Erythrokinetics. IV. The Plasma Iron
Turnover as a Measure of Erythropoiesis.” Blood.
Vol. 12, 1957, 407-427.
Letter. C.A. Finch to S. Marks. July 17, 1984.
Pacific Northwest Laboratory General Human
Subjects, Box Alan Rither, PNL-9055-DEL. □
0716. Study of Blood Labeled With
Chromium-51 in Normal Volunteer
Subjects
Chromium-51 was used to tag red blood cells,
which were then injected in normal volunteers in
amounts similar to those used clinically in blood
volume determinations. The number of volun-
teers was estimated to be 50. These studies led
to the use of adenine as a blood preservative.
The University of Washington, Seattle, con-
ducted the study prior to 1964 with funding from
the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. (Previously
described in #39 on the original list of 48 experi-
ments released by DOE in June 1994)
References
Lange, R.D., W.H. Crosby, D.M. Donohue, C.A.
Finch, J.G. Gibson, R.J. McManus, and M.M.
Stumia. “Effect of Inosine on Red Cell Preserva-
tion.” Journal of Clinical Investigation. Vol. 37,
1958, pp. 1,485-1,493.
Letter. C.A. Finch to S. Marks. July 17, 1984.
Pacific Northwest Laboratory General Human
Subjects, Box Alan Rither, PNL-9055-DEL. □
OT-17. Total-Body Neutron Activation
Analysis
Between 1970 and 1973, studies on the poten-
tial usefulness of total body neutron activation
analysis as a diagnostic tool were conducted at
University Hospital, University of Washington,
Seattle. In the first stage, 40 to 50 females were
studied to develop the technique. All were over
the age of 55 years and were afflicted with known
bone-wasting diseases, such as osteoporosis. In
the second stage, which used this new technique
with human subjects, 25 chronically ill adults suf-
fering from kidney failure were studied to evalu-
ate calcium balance. Females in the second
stage were beyond childbearing years. All sub-
jects were exposed to uniform low-flux, high-en-
ergy neutrons. The total body dose to study par-
ticipants was estimated to be 0.2 rad (neutrons).
Initial subject were given a 1-year examination,
but no longer-term follow-up was conducted. This
study was funded by the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission. (Previously described in #38 on the
original list of 48 experiments released by DOE in
June 1994)
References
Hennessey, M., C.A. Finch, and B.W. Gabrio.
“Erythrocyte Preservation. VIII. Metabolic Degra-
dation of Nucleosides In Vitro and In Vivo.” Jour-
nal of Clinical Investigation. Vol. 36, 1957, pp.
429-433.
Letter. W.B. Nelpto S. Marks. August 30, 1984.
Pacific Northwest Laboratory, General Human
Subjects, Box Alan Rither, PNL-9055-DEL. □
OT-18. Utah Strontium-85 Metabolism Study
Donohue, D.M., B.W. Gabrio, F.M. Huennekens,
and C.A. Finch. “The Metabolic Pathways of Pu-
rine Nucleosides and the Use of Inosine in Red
Cell Preservation.” in International Society of
Blood Transfusion: Proceedings of the 6th Con-
gress. Basel: Karger, 1958, pp. 290-293.
The University of Utah Radiobiology Laboratory
conducted a strontium-85 (Sr 85 ) metabolism
study on human subjects in 1956 to determine
the uptake, retention, and excretion of Sr 85 in
man. The study was conducted to learn more
about the likely metabolism of strontium-90 (Sr 90 )
fallout from atomic testing. Subjects consisted of
seven male patients at the Salt Lake Veterans
287
Hu ma n R a diat i on Expe r imen ts: Th e DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
Administration Hospital and two male staff mem-
bers. Five of the patients had normal bone me-
tabolism and two had osteoporosis. After intrave-
nous injection of approximately 5 microcuries of
Sr 85 , measurements were made over time to de-
termine concentrations of Sr 85 in blood plasma,
urine, and feces. Bone tissue biopsy samples
obtained from two osteoporotic patients and from
two normal subjects were analyzed for Sr 85 and
calcium. In addition, several bone samples were
obtained at autopsy from a tenth injected patient
who was not bioassayed along with the other pa-
tients. This work showed that strontium cleared
more efficiently than calcium from the blood and
was excreted primarily in urine rather than feces.
This study was part of Project Sunshine and was
supported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commis-
sion.
References
Van Dilla, M. A., S. Wallach, and J. S. Arnold.
“Sr-85 Tracer Studies in Humans.” Semiannual
Progress Report. Salt Lake City: Radiobiology
Laboratory, University of Utah, September 30,
1956. □
OT-19. Radioisotope Studies at the Femald
State School, Massachusetts
In the early to mid-1950s, various radiation-re-
lated studies were carried out at the Femald State
School in Waverly, MA, using students as sub-
jects. In a study addressing calcium metabolism,
nine adolescent males, institutionalized for mental
inadequacy but otherwise physically normal, rang-
ing in age from 10 to 15 years, and one 21 -year-
old male participated as subjects. The adolescents
received 0.7 microcurie of calcium-45 (Ca 45 ). The
subjects were divided into two groups. One group
was administered the Ca 45 intravenously, the other
received it orally. One month later, 0.74 microcurie
was administered, but the means of administration
was reversed between the groups. Two years
later, 2.02 microcuries were administered to the
21 -year-old subject. The studies showed that cal-
cium is retained in the body for some time and that
it is eventually excreted more through urine than
feces.
A second study addressed thyroid function in
Down’s syndrome subjects and their parents.
Twenty-one male and female Down’s syndrome
students ranging in age from 5 to 26 years partic-
ipated, as did 5 female and 2 male normal par-
ents of these students. The students were orally
administered 70 microcuries of iodine-131 (I 131 ).
The parents received 100 microcuries. Thyroid
uptake, turnover, and urinary excretion were sub-
sequently measured. Additionally, thyroxine me-
tabolism was studied in two Down’s syndrome
students after intravenous injection of 55
microcuries of thyroxine labeled with I 131 . These
studies showed that iodine uptake was in the
low-normal range and did not differ significantly
from normal values; that the iodine turnover rate
was significantly faster than normal; that the thy-
roxine turnover rate was normal; and that the
uptake, turnover, and excretion rates in parents
of Down’s syndrome children was normal. These
studies were supported in part by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission.
References
Bronner, F., R.S. Harris, C.J. Maletskos, and
C.E. Benda. “Studies in Calcium Metabolism.
The Fate of Intravenously Injected Radiocalcium
in Human Beings.” Journal of Clinical Investiga-
tion. Vol. 35, 1956, pp. 78-88.
Kurland, G.S., J. Fishman, M.W. Hamolsky, and
A.S. Freedberg. “Radioisotope Study of Thyroid
Function in 21 Mongoloid Subjects Including Ob-
servations in 7 Parents.” Journal of Endocrinol-
ogy and Metabolism. Vol. 17, 1957, pp.
552-560. □
OT-20. Uptake of Iodine-1 31 by Premature
Infante In Detroit
In 1954, the uptake of iodine-131 by the thyroid
gland of premature infants was studied by the
Pediatric Division and the Radioisotope Labora-
tory of Harper Hospital, Detroit, Ml. Sixty-five pre-
mature infants ranging in birth weight from 2.1 to
5.5 lb were included in the study; 7 full-term in-
fants were used for the control group. The pre-
mature infants were given 5 microcuries of I 131
orally. I 131 concentrations were then measured in
the thyroid gland. It was found that the range of
uptake of I 131 in this series of infants was within
the limits of normal as measured in studies of
full-term children and adults. (Previously
288
Chapter 3. Human Radiation Experiments — University of Rochester
described in #4 on original 48 experiments re-
leased by DOE in June 1994)
References
Martmer, E.E., K.E. Corrigan, H.P. Charbeneau,
and A. Sosin. “A Study of the Uptake of Iodine
(I 131 ) by the Thyroid of Premature Infants.” AMA
American Journal of Diseases of Children. Vol.
17, 1955, pp. 503-509. □
OT-21 Testicular irradiation of Oregon State
Prison inmates
From August 1963 to May 1 971 , the Pacific
Northwest Research Foundation in Seattle, WA,
conducted studies on the effects of radiation on
human testicular function using as subjects in-
mates at the Oregon State Prison in Salem, OR.
The purposes of the study were to determine the
effects of ionizing radiation on sperm production
and to determine minimum dose levels for initial
effect and permanent damage. Sixty-seven
healthy volunteers ranging in age from 24 to 52
years were irradiated by x rays at least once dur-
ing the course of the study. Of these 67 subjects,
6 received a second irradiation, 1 received 3 irra-
diations, and 1 received a series of 11 weekly
irradiations. Testicular absorbed doses ranged
from 8 to 640 rads. Postirradiation studies in-
cluded analysis of blood, urine, and seminal fluid,
and biopsy of sperm-producing tissues. Subjects
were compensated for their participation and for
each biopsy. All subjects who had not been pre-
viously vasectomized agreed to undergo a va-
sectomy at the conclusion of the study. All did so
and received additional compensation for the
procedure. All subjects were volunteers. Inmates
could withdraw from participation at any time.
The study was reviewed at 3-month intervals by a
review board, and three additional reviews were
provided by a national ad hoc committee.
This study showed that a single testicular dose of
600 rads caused temporary disruption of testicular
function. Recovery time was dose dependent: The
higher the dose, the longer the time required for
recovery. Subjects who were irradiated a second
or third time had responses that were similar to
their initial responses. This work was supported by
the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. (This experi-
ment was referenced in the Markey report.)
References
Heller, C.G. Effects of Ionizing Radiation on the
Testicular Function of Man: 9 Year Progress Re-
port. Seattle: Pacific Northwest Research Foun-
dation, May 1972.
Heller, C.G., D.E. Dilaconi, and M.J. Rowley. Pro-
tection of the Rights and Welfare of Prison Volun-
teers: Policies Followed Throughout a 17- Year
Medical Research Program. Seattle: Pacific North-
west Research Foundation.
Rowley, M.J., D.R. Leach, G.A. Warner, and
C.G. Heller. “Effect of Graded Doses of Ionizing
Radiation on the Human Testis.” Radiation Re-
search. Vol. 59, 1974, pp. 665-678.
"Background Information on AEC Human Testicular
Irradiation Projects in Oregon and Washington State
Prisons.” Information from ERDA. Washington, DC:
Energy Research and Development Administration,
March 1975. □
OT-22. Distribution of Zinc-65 in Blood and
Organs of Man
In 1947, researchers in Boston administered
zinc-65 (Zn 65 ) to a 67-year-old male suffering
from myelogenous leukemia and to a
nonleukemic, healthy subject. The purpose of
this study was to determine how the content and
distribution of zinc in blood and organs of the nor-
mal subject compared with the zinc content and
distribution in the leukemia patient. Zn 65 was in-
jected intravenously as zinc chloride daily for sev-
eral days and ranged in amounts ranging from 2
milligrams per day to “far in excess of this
amount.” Analysis occurred over a long period of
time to monitor Zn 65 retention.
This experiment showed that zinc plays an impor-
tant role in the metabolism of tissues and blood
cells. The work was supported by the U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission. (Previously described in #32
on the original list of 48 experiments released by
DOE in June 1994)
References
Vallee, B.L., R.G. Fluharty, and J.G. Gibson. Distri-
bution of Zinc in Normal Blood and Organs Stud-
ied by Means of Zn 65 . 1947. Oak Ridge Operations
289
I
Human Radiation Experi me nts: The DOE Roa dmap to the Story and th e Records
Office, (RHTG) Classified Docs 1944-1994, Re-
cords Holding Area — Bldg 271 4-H Vault, Box
RHA HI 08-5, 1 of 2, Folder Advisory Committee.
Gibson, J.G., B.l. Vallee, R.G. Fluharty, and J.E.
Nelson. Studies of the Zinc Content of the Leuco-
cytes in Myelogenous Leukemia. 1 947. Oak Ridge
Operations Office, (RHTG) Classified Docs
1944-1994, Records Holding Area — Bldg 271 4-H
Vault, Box RHA HI 08-5, 1 of 2, Folder Advisory
Committee. □
290
Appendix: Abbreviations and Acronyms
Abbreviations and Acronyms
ABC — Advanced Biomedical Science and Treat-
ment Center (at LBL)
ACRH — Argonne Cancer Research Hospital
(University of Chicago)
ACTH — alpha-corticotrophin
A I W — a prototype Naval reactor (at INEL)
ADOCS — (an INEL database)
AEC — [U.S.] Atomic Energy Commission
AEP — Atomic Energy Project (University of
Rochester)
ALARA — as low as reasonably achievable
AUI — Associated Universities, Inc.
ANC — Aerojet Nuclear Company
ANL — Argonne National Laboratory (IL)
AWF — Argonne National Laboratory West Fa-
cility (ID)
BNL — Brookhaven National Laboratory (Upton,
NY)
BORAX — Boiling Water Reactor Experiment (at
INEL)
CAM — Committee on Aviation Medicine (of
Donner Laboratory, Berkeley)
CDC — Centers for Disease Control and Pre-
vention (of U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services)
CERT — Controlled Environmental Radioiodine
Tests (at INEL); also: Controlled Environmen-
tal Release Tests (at INEL)
CERTLE — CERT Laboratory Experiments
CF — central files (a prefix used in ORNL re-
ports and correspondence)
CFA — Central Facilities Area (at ID)
CHR — Center for Human Radiobiology (at
ANL)
CIC — Coordinating and Information Center (Las
Vegas)
CM — Chemistry and Metallurgy Division (at
LANL)
CPP — Chemical Processing Plant
DBM — Division of Biology and Medicine (of the
AEC)
DMA — Division of Military Applications (of
AEC)
DOD — [U.S.] Department of Defense
DOE — [U.S.] Department of Energy
DTPA — diethylenetriamine penatacetic acid
E — Engineering Ordnance Division (at LANL)
EBR-1 — Experimental Breeder Reactor I (at
INEL)
EHS — Environmental Health Science (a type of
appraisal conducted by AEC); see also RL
EIS — Environmental Impact Statement
EH DP — diophosphonate
EM — Environmental Management Division (at
LANL)
EP — Experimental Physics Division (at LANL)
ER — Environmental Research Division (at ANL)
ERDA — Energy Research and Development Ad-
ministration (successor to AEC)
EXCES — Experimental Cloud Exposure Study
(at INEL)
FDG — fluorodeoxyglucose
FFTF — Fast Flux Test Facility
FPFRT — Fission Product Field Release Tests
FRC — Federal Records Center
GAC — General Advisory Committee (of AEC)
GE — General Electric Company
GM — General Manager (of AEC)
GMX-5 — Dynamic Weapons Testing Division
(at LANL)
H — Health Division (at LANL)
H — 4 — Biomedical Research Group of the Health
Division (at LANL)
HEDR — Hanford Environmental Dose Recon-
struction Project
291
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
HEW — [U.S. Department of] Health, Education,
and Welfare (preceded U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services)
HR — Deputy Assistant Secretary for Human
Resources (of DOE)
HS — Health and Safety Division (at LANL)
HSE — Health, Safety, and Environment Division
(at LANL)
HTRE — Heat Transfer Reactor Experiments (at
INEL)
ICPP — Idaho Chemical Processing Plant
IET — Initial Engine Test(s) [conducted at the
AEC National Reactor Testing Station in
Idaho for the ANP program]
IHDE— INEL Historical DOSE Evaluation
INEL — Idaho National Engineering Laboratory
IRB — Institutional Review Board
K-25 — a facility in Oak Ridge, TN, originally
built as a gaseous diffusion plant site for pro-
ducing U 235
K-27 — a gaseous diffusion plant built near K-25
LAMPF — Los Alamos Meson Physics Facility
LANL — Los Alamos National Laboratory (NM)
LASL — Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (an
early name for LANL)
LBL — Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (Berkeley,
CA)
LDDT — Long Distance Diffusion Tests (at INEL)
LETBI — Low Exposure Total Body Irradiator (at
Oak Ridge, TN); see also METBI
LIBRA — Light Ion Medical Research Accelerator
(at LBL)
LLNL — Lawrence Livermore National Labora-
tory (Livermore, CA)
LMFBR — Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor
LOFT — Loss of Fluid Test Facility (at INEL)
LRL — Lawrence Radiation Laboratory
LS — Life Sciences Division (at LANL)
MED — Manhattan Engineer District — the Man-
hattan Project
METBI — Medium Exposure Total Body Irradi-
ator (at Oak Ridge, TN); see also LETBI
Met Lab — Metallurgical Laboratory (at Univer-
sity of Chicago)
MH&S — Medicine Health and Safety
M&O — management and operating
MON — a prefix denoting reports generated by
Monsanto Corporation when it operated
ORNL
NARA — U.S. National Archives and Records
Administration
NASA — National Aeronautics and Space Admin-
istration
NCEH — National Center for Environmental
Health (of CDC)
N-Division — Nuclear Rocket Propulsion Divi-
sion (of LASC)
NEPA — Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of
Aircraft
NIH — National Institutes of Health
NOAA — National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (of the U.S. Department of
Commerce)
NRC — Nuclear Regulatory Commission
NRF — Naval Reactors Facility (ID)
NRTS — National Reactor Testing Station (early
name for INEL)
OH RE — Office of Human Radiation Experiments
OMRE — Organic Moderated Solvent Burning
Experiment (at INEL)
OPEC — Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries
ORAU — Oak Ridge Associated Universities
ORINS — Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies
ORISE — Oak Ridge Institute for Science and
Education
ORNL — Oak Ridge National Laboratory (TN)
ORO — Oak Ridge Operations Office (of DOE)
OSRD — [U.S.] Office of Scientific Research and
Development
292
Appendix: Abbreviations and Acronyms
OSTI — Office of Scientific and Technical Infor-
mation (of DOE)
PET — positron emission tomography
PNL — Pacific Northwest Laboratory (Richland,
WA)
RaLa — radioactive lanthanum; also known as
radio lanthanum
RDT — Relative Diffusion Tests (at IN EL)
RESL — Radiological and Environmental Sciences
Laboratory (at IN EL)
RHTG — Records Holding Task Group (of Oak
Ridge Operations Office)
RL — Richland Operations Office; see also EHS
ROTC — Reserve Officers Training Corps
S1W — a prototype naval reactor (IN EL)
S5G — a prototype naval reactor (at IN EL)
S-50 — the liquid thermal diffusion plant built at
Oak Ridge, TN in 1944 to enrich uranium
feed material for Y- 1 2
SFPHS — San Francisco Public Health Service
SL— 1 — Stationary Low-Power Reactor No. I (at
INEL)
SNAP — System(s) for Nuclear Auxiliary Power
SNAPTRAN — SNAP I0A Transient Test (at
INEL)
SPERT — Special Power Excursion Reactor Tests
(at INEL)
T — Theoretical Physics Division (at LANL)
TM — Technical Memoranda (an ORNL report
series dating from 1974)
TNT — Transient Nuclear Test (at INEL)
TWX — Teletypewriter Exchange
UC — University of California
UCB — Committee for the Protection of Human
Subjects (at Donner Laboratory, Berkeley);
see also LRL
USGS — U.S. Geological Survey
USPHS — United States Public Health Service
WBC — Whole Body Counter
X — 1 0 — a test pile plant built at Oak Ridge
Y— 1 2 — the industrial electromagnetic separation
plant in Oak Ridge, TN, originally built to pro-
duce uranium-235
293
294
A ppendix : Radiation Ter ms
Radiation Terms
D efined below are some technical terms
relating to radiation.
Radioactivity is the tendency of unstable atoms
to undergo a spontaneous, energy-releasing
change in their structure. The energy released
is called radiation. It occurs at various energy
levels. At a certain point, radiation energy is
sufficient to strip electrons from the atoms in
materials it strikes and is therefore called \oniz-
ing radiation. It is particularly dangerous for
humans because these energy levels are such
that they also can cause damage to living tissues.
Ionizing radiation may involve alpha particles,
beta particles, gamma rays, x rays, or neutrons.
Alpha particles — An alpha particle is a high-en-
ergy particle with a very short range. It does
not pose an external hazard because it cannot
penetrate human skin. It may be stopped by a
single sheet of paper. However, if inhaled or
ingested, the particles come in direct contact
with tissue cells and can cause severe damage.
Accordingly, alpha particles present a serious
internal hazard. Uranium, radium, and pluto-
nium all emit alpha particles.
Beta particles — Beta particles exhibit a wide
range of energy levels. Some have sufficient en-
ergy to penetrate human skin, and will cause
skin burns. These particles can cause damage if
inhaled or ingested. Beta particles can be
stopped by plastic, aluminum, and wood. Tri-
tium is one example of a beta emitter.
Gamma rays and x rays — Both of these are
high-energy emissions that easily penetrate the
human body. They are, therefore, dangerous in
high amounts as external radiation hazards.
They can be stopped by dense materials, such
as lead, concrete, or steel. Gamma rays are
produced by isotopes such as lanthanum- 1 40,
cesium- 1 37, and cobalt-60. X rays are produced
by medical x-ray tubes and the x-ray machines
used to examine carry-on baggage at airports.
Neutrons — A neutron is a component of the
nucleus of an atom. Neutron radiation can be
harmful to living things. Neutrons are liberated
in great numbers in a nuclear reactor, but they
do not present a hazard to humans because
they are absorbed by the heavy shielding that
encloses the reactor. Neutrons are also emitted
during the spontaneous decay of certain radio-
nuclides such as californium-252.
Amount of radiation is expressed in several
ways. A curie is a measure of activity, or the rate
of disintegration of atoms undergoing change.
This unit of measure is often expressed as mi/li-
curies (thousandths of a curie) or microcuries
(millionths of a curie). A roentgen is a measure
of the ionization of air by x rays or gamma rays.
Exposure refers to being placed in a field of
radiation energy. Dose refers to energy im-
parted per unit mass of tissue. A rad is a mea-
sure of the absorbed dose to tissue from expo-
sure to radiation; that is, the amount of energy
deposited per unit mass of tissue. A rem is a
measure of dose equivalent in man. It is the
dose in rads multiplied by a weighting factor to
account for the more damaging effects of alpha
particles and neutron radiation.
Background radiation refers to the natural radi-
ation to which people are exposed in daily life.
It differs for different locations and different
circumstances. Brick and wood homes emit dif-
ferent levels of background radiation. Cities at
different elevations have different levels of back-
ground cosmic radiation. For example, the aver-
age annual dose from all sources to U.S. resi-
dents is estimated to be 200 millirems per year.
However, the average dose to residents of Los
Alamos, NM — a city at high elevation — is 330
millirems per year. A transcontinental airplane
flight will result in a dose of about 4 millirems
to a passenger. A standard chest x ray will re-
sult in a dose of about 1 0 millirems.
Occupational dose refers to the dose that peo-
ple receive in their workplace. To provide for
the safety of workers, the International Com-
mission on Radiological Protection has estab-
lished certain standards to limit the dose re-
ceived by workers. Standards for minors are 1 0
percent of the dose for adults. These annual
dose limits for radiation workers are:
Whole body 5 rem
Skin or any extremities 50 rem
Eyes 1 5 rem
Embryo/fetus 0.5 rem
By comparison, the annual dose limit for the
general public (not radiation workers) set by
the Commission is 0.1 rem. □
295
296
Appendix: Markey Report “Experiment List”
T he Following is a category and title list of
experiments taken from American Nuclear
Guinea Pigs: Three Decades of Radiation Experi-
ments on U.S. Citizens. This 1 986 report was
prepared by the Subcommittee on Energy Con-
servation and Power of the Committee on En-
ergy and Commerce of the U.S. House of Repre-
sentatives. Known as the Markey Report, the
report arranges experiments into 1 2 categories.
Individual experiments are discussed in some
categories, and not in others. A number of these
“Markey experiments” have been reworked with
more current information and references, and
included in Chapter 3. Others are included by
reference as part of this appendix.
Category I : Metabolism and Biological Effects
of Plutonium, Polonium, Thorium, Uranium,
Radium, and Lead-212
• Plutonium Injections into Humans
• Administration of Radium and Thorium to
Humans
• Polonium Administered to Humans
• Absorption of Lead-2 1 2 by Human Gastro-
intestinal Tract
• Some Biological Aspects of Radioactive
Microspheres in Humans
• Injection of Uranium Salts
Category 2: Testicular Irradiation
• Testicular Irradiation of Inmates at Oregon
State Prison
• Testicular Irradiation of Inmates at Wash-
ington State Prison
Category 3: Whole Body Irradiation for Treat-
ment of Leukemia and Lymphoma
• Blood Changes in Human Beings Following
Total Body Irradiation
Category 4: Teletherapy with Particular Beams
• Neutron Therapy Facility
• Biological Effects of Heavy Ions on Human
Nervous System and Vision
Category 5: Other Teletherapy Studies
Category 6: Treatment of Polycythemia
Category 7: Hematological Effects
Category 8: Neutron Capture Therapy
Category 9: Other Radiation Therapy
• Uranium Injected into Brain Tumor Patients
Category 1 0: Biological Effects of I 131
• Study of Changes in Thyroids Irradiated
with Radioactive Iodine
• Milk containing I 131 Fed to Humans
• Planned Radioiodine Exposures to Humans
Category 1 1 : Other Biological Effects Studies
• Reactions of Human Skin to Beta Rays
• Studies of Radium applied to Human Skin
• Analysis of Illness of Children Receiving
Fetal Irradiation
• Human Absorption of Tritium Oxide
through Skin
• Effects of X Rays on Human Fingers
• Human Absorption and Excretion of Tri-
tium
• Human Absorption of Tritium Liquid and
Vapor
• Human Absorption of Tritium by Lung
• Human Absorption of Ingested Tritium
Water
• Radiation Exposure of Aircrews in Mush-
room Clouds
• Radioactive Material placed on Human Skin
• Medical Follow-up Studies
• Human Ingestion of Fallout
• Lanthanum- 1 40 Administered to Humans
Category 1 2: Metabolic and Physiological Studies
• Strontium and Calcium Injected in Terminal
Cancer Patients
• Technetium Administered to Humans
• Promethium Administered to Humans
• Phosphorus-32 Injected into Humans
• Humans Inhaled Tritium
• Radioactive Material Administered to Hu-
mans to Calibrate Equipment □
297
298
Select Bibliography
Select Bibliography
T his bibliography lists a selection of the
sources consulted for the overview history
and the histories of individual sites. Note that
many primary and secondary sources potentially
useful for studying human radiation experiments
exist apart from those listed here. All of the
primary-source documents listed are available to
the public. For copies, please mail requests to
the following address:
Office of Human Radiation Experiments
1 726 M Street N.W., Suite 200
Washington, DC 20036
Or call (202) 254-5020.
Primary Source Documents
U. S. Congress
Committee on Energy and Commerce, U. S.
House of Representatives. Report. American
Nuclear Guinea Pigs: Three Decades of Radia-
tion Experiments on U. S. Citizens. November
1986.
Committee on Science and Technology, U. S.
House of Representatives. Hearings on Human
Total Body Irradiation (TBI) Program at Oak
Ridge. September 23, 1981.
U.S. Department of Energy, Archives
Comptroller General of the United States. Re-
port, Administration and Management of the
Biology and Medicine Research Program, Atomic
Energy Commission, April 16, 1969. U. S. De-
partment of Energy Archives, Record Group
326, Atomic Energy Commission, Collection,
Secretariat, Box 7827, Folder 1 0.
Letter, Carroll L. Wilson to Dr. Stafford L. War-
ren, April 30, 1947. U.S. Department of Energy
Archives, Record Group 326, Atomic Energy
Commission, Collection, General Manager, Box
5501, Folder April 1947 Reader File.
Letter, David Lilienthal to G.W. Beadle, August
6, 1 947. U.S. Department of Energy Archives,
Record Group 326, U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission, Collection, Biology and Medicine
(I 129), Box 1, Folder 2.
Letter, Carroll L. Wilson to Robert S. Stone,
November 5, 1947. U. S. Department of Energy
Archives, Record Group 326, Atomic Energy
Commission, Collection, General Manager, Box
5501, Folder 13.
Letter, Shields Warren to Leslie M. Redman,
March 5, 1 95 1 . U. S. Department of Energy Ar-
chives, Record Group 326, Collection, Division
of Biology and Medicine ( I 1 32), Box 3353,
Folder 39.
Liverman, James L. Briefing on Plutonium Pro-
ject, April 29, 1974. U.S. Department of Energy
Archives, Record Group 326, U.S. Atomic En-
ergy Commission, Collection, Secretariat, Box
7931, Folder 1.
Memorandum, O. G. Haywood, Jr. to File. Sub-
ject: Distribution of Report “The Distribution
and Excretion of Plutonium in Two Human Sub-
jects,” March I I, 1947. U. S. Department of
EnergyArchives, Record Group 326, U. S.
Atomic Energy Commission, General Manager,
Box 5579, Folder Declassification General.
U. S. Atomic Energy Commission. Annual and
Semiannual Reports to Congress, 1947-1975.
U.S. Department of Energy Archives. Reference
Collection.
U. S. Atomic Energy Commission. Report of the
Board of Review, June 20, 1947. U.S. Depart-
ment of Energy Archives, Record Group 326,
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Collection,
Division of Biology and Medicine (I 129), Box 1,
Folder 2.
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. Minutes of Lim-
ited Attendance Session 74-78A, May 14, 1974.
U.S. Department of Energy Archives, Record
Group 326, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,
Collection, Secretariat, Box 7937, Folder 13.
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. Minutes of
Commissioners Executive Session, May 15, 1974.
U.S. Department of Energy Archives, Record
Group 326, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,
299
Human Radiation Experiments: The DOE Roadmap to the Story and the Records
Collection, Commission Minutes, Box 3738,
Folder 3.
U. S. Atomic Energy Commission. Division of
Inspection, Report 44-2-326, Division of Bio-
medical and Environmental Research, Headquar-
ters Activities Involving Injection of Individuals
with Plutonium, August 16, 1974. U. S. Depart-
ment of Energy Archives, Record Group 326,
Collection, Division of Biology and Medicine
(1709), Box 4, Folder, MH&S 3-9 Plutonium In-
jection Investigation.
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. Information
Report, August 13, 1974, SECY-75- 1 30. U.S.
Department of Energy Archives, Record Group
326, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Collec-
tion, Secretariat, Box 7979, Folder 1 2.
U. S. Atomic Energy Commission. ‘‘A Plan for
the Expansion of Research in Biology and Medi-
cine." A Report to the General Manager by the
Director, Division of Biology and Medicine, AEC
604/35, August 4, 1 958. U.S. Department of En-
ergy Archives, Record Group 326, U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission, Collection, Secretariat
Files, Box 1360, Folder 1.
U. S. Department of Energy, Los Alamos
National Laboratory
I U. S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge
Institute for Science and Education
Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies Medical
Division, Information for Patients, n.d. but about
1952. Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Educa-
tion, Collection, Medical Correspondence and
Committee Files, ORAU Document No. 30052.
U. S. Department of Energy, Office of Human
Radiation Experiments
Memorandum, L.H. Hempelmann to R. J.
Oppenheimer, March 26, 1945. “Meeting of
Chemistry Division and Medical Group.” Office of
Human Radiation Experiments, Collection, Pluto-
nium Injection Investigation Files, Box 3, Folder
LA-1 151 Plutonium in Man, 1950, Langham.
Martin Marietta Systems, Inc., Chronological
Listing of Radiation Research Involving Human
Subjects and Deliberate Environmental Releases
at the Sites Currently Managed for the U. S. De-
partment of Energy, 1 994. Office of Human Ra-
diation Experiments, Collection, Retrieval Pro-
ject Administrative Files, Drawer, Labora-
tory/Sites, Progress Reports, Retrieval Visits,
Folder ORNL/ORISE Experiments Lists.
Memorandum, G.T. Seaborg to R.S. Stone, Janu-
ary 5, 1 944. “Physiological Hazards of Working
with Plutonium.” Los Alamos Human Studies
Project Team Release No. 94-365.
Letter, Thomas L. Shipman to Charles L. Dun-
ham, June 18, 1956. Los Alamos National Labo-
ratory Records Center, Collection TR-6704,
Box G-3-236, Folder AEC Bio-Medical.
Letter, Charles L. Dunham to Thomas L. Ship-
man, July 5, 1956. Los Alamos National Labora-
tory Records Center, Collection, TR-6704, Box
G-3-236, Folder AEC Bio-Medical.
U. S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge
Operations Office
Letter, O. G. Haywood, Jr. to Dr. Fidler, April
1 7, 1 947. Oak Ridge Operations Office Records
Holding Area, Collection RHTG Files, Box 603.
U. S. Department of Energy, Pacific
Laboratory
Jenne, D.E. and J.W. Healy. “Dissolving of
Twenty Day Metal at Hanford,” HW 17381.
Richland, Washington: General Electric Nucle-
onics Department, May I, 1950.
National Archives and
Washington, DC
Warren, Stafford L. “Report of the January
23-24, 1947 Meeting of the Interim Medical
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301
302
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